Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.16 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 102 3848 2823207 2799735 2026-08-19T20:02:31Z ~2026-45303-31 3108511 added a new useful resource 2823207 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center;"> '''[[Portal:Foreign Language Learning|C<small>ENTRE FOR</small> F<small>OREIGN</small> L<small>ANGUAGE</small> L<small>EARNING</small> ]]''' [[Portal:Arabic|Arabic]] · [[Portal:Chinese|Chinese]] · [[Portal:Esperanto|Esperanto]] · [[Portal:French|French]] · [[Portal:Italian|Italian]] · [[Portal:Japanese|Japanese]] · [[Portal:Spanish|Spanish]]</div> <div style="display:block; border:2px solid #6886F1; vertical-align:top; width:99%; background-color:#fffcaf; {{text color default}}; margin-bottom:10px; margin-top:5px; padding-left:5px; padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#469D24; {{text color default}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px; margin-top:0; margin-left:-5px; margin-right:-4px;">Portuguese Language Page</h2> [[Image:Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg|upright=2|thumb|Portuguese language in the world.]] '''Portuguese''' is spoken by an estimated 240,000,000 people, in the countries of Brazil, Portugal, Mozambique, Angola, São Tomé and Principe, Cape Verde, Macao, and East Timor. That makes it the 6th most spoken language in the world. It is a '''Romance''' language meaning that it is derived from Latin. Galician and Fala are the most related languages to it but Spanish is also well known to be similar. Portuguese is also a Category I language, making it easy for English speakers to learn. More on the Portuguese language will be introduced in the Introductory Course. </div> <div style="display:block; border:2px solid #6886F1; vertical-align:top; width:99%; background-color:#fffcaf; {{text color default}}; margin-bottom:10px; margin-top:5px; padding-left:5px; padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#469D24; {{text color default}}; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px; margin-top:0; margin-left:-5px; margin-right:-4px;">Courses</h2> As of now, there are two Portuguese courses available. Both are under construction and any help would be very useful. *[[Introduction to Portuguese]] a collaborative work done to aid the curious. This is the absolute beginner's first baby steps into the Portuguese language. NOTE: This course is not needed to be able to move on to the Brazilian Portuguese Course. *[[Brazilian Portuguese]] for those wanting to learn the ''Português do Brasil''. Feel free to jump right in. Lessons are organized and packed with activities and quizzes to constantly keep your brain working. Additionally you can find course books on our sister site wikibooks.org .There are three different books for learning portuguese. Again these are at various stages of completion: * [[wikibooks:Portuguese/Contents/L1]] and [[wikibooks:Portuguese/Contents/L2]] - For learning european portuguese, a wikibook split across two different levels, and 15 lessons (quite well developed) * [[wikibooks:Portuguese/Contents/BPL1]] - For learning brazilian portuguese (very unfinished) * [[wikibooks:Brazilian Portuguese]] - Also for learning brazilian portuguese (and also very unfinished) There is also [[wikibooks:Talk:Portuguese/Contents|discussion about the duplication of courses]] </div> <div style="display:block; border:2px solid #6886F1; vertical-align:top; width:99%; background-color:#fffcaf; {{text color default}}; margin-bottom:10px; margin-top:5px; padding-left:5px; padding-right:4px;"> <h2 style="padding:3px; background:#469D24; color:#000; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:100%; margin-bottom:5px; margin-top:0; margin-left:-5px; margin-right:-4px;">Resources</h2> *[http://www.onlineportuguesehelp.com/ Online Portuguese Help] *[http://www.easyportuguese.com/ Easy Portuguese] *[http://learnportuguese.elanguageschool.net/ elanguage Portuguese] *[http://falando.app Falando (Brazilian Portuguese Learning Platform & App)] </div> *[[Portuguese stream]] [[Category:Language learning portals]] kseujcdj4jgwmu9d13fe48yd8fn7gpz 0 9269 2823192 2786450 2026-08-19T19:01:11Z Amp1976 3108483 Copyedited section on parts of speech and made them consistent by adding end punctuation, standardizing example parentheticals, correcting typos. Added sections to flesh out the existing material on sentences: What is a sentence, Compound sentences, compound subjects and predicates; added formatting to examples plus notes explaining a couple of things; removed "the" from section headers so they started with the part of speech and not "the"; rearranged existing verb section into the verb area. 2823192 wikitext text/x-wiki {{launch}} {{Cleanup|[[Help:Wikify|Wikify]]}} ==Introduction== English grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the English language. English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, whose speakers, called Anglophones, originated in early medieval England on the island of Great Britain. ==Origins of English== English is a West Germanic language. It came from Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain in the mid-5th to 7th centuries AD by Anglo-Saxons who migrated from what is now northwest Germany, southern Denmark and the Netherlands. It is also heavily based on [[Latin]], the language used by the Roman Empire, that existed from 27 BC to around 1453. ==English Grammar== ===Alphabet, Pronunciation, and an Introduction to Basic Pronunciation=== === Parts of Speech === There are nine different parts of speech, each with several subcategories. *'''noun''' - a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. (''Examples: girl, firefighter, dog, church, computer, friendship.)'' A common noun is lower-cased and names any person, animal, place, thing, or idea, while a proper noun denotes someone or something's name with a capital letter at the beginning of the word. <i>(Examples: Penelope, Russia.) </i> *'''verb''' - a word that describes an action or state of existence. The most common verbs you'll see are action verbs (such as run, jump, like, want), but many other kinds of verbs exist, such as the auxiliary verb, which gives functional or grammatical meaning to the sentence in which it appears (such as is, was). *'''pronoun''' - a word used in place of a noun to decrease redundancy. The pronoun 'I' is always capitalized. <i>(Examples: I, you, he, she, we, they.) </i> *'''adjective''' - a word that describes a noun. <i>(Examples: big, red, dark.) </i> *'''adverb''' - a word that modifies a verb or adjective, describing when, where, or how. <i>(Examples: quickly, yesterday, everywhere.) </i> *'''preposition''' - a word that connects a noun or pronoun to a sentence. <i>(Examples: on, at, by, as, after.) </i> *'''conjunction''' - a word that links two words, phrases, or sentences. <i>(Examples: and, or, because.) </i> *'''interjection''' - a word that conveys emotion. <i>(Examples: ahem, egad, hey, ouch.) </i> *'''article''' - a word that introduces a noun. <i>(Examples: a, an, the.) </i> ===Noun Basics=== ===Verb Basics=== ====Transitivity==== ====Verb Tenses==== ===== Past Tense ===== ====== Helping Verbs in the Past Tense ====== To obtain a clear understanding of the helping verb in the English past tense, we must review the simple past, since that is what we will use for our examples. The simple past includes sentences like 'Bob jumped' or 'Bob flew.' However, when we add a helping verb that does not change the actual tense, the main verb reverts to the infinitive. '''Examples:''' <blockquote>Bob jumped. Bob flew. Bob did jump. Bob did fly. </blockquote> ===Pronoun Basics=== ===Adjective Basics=== ==Syntax, or Sentence Formation== === What is a Sentence? === At its most basic, a sentence is a word or grouping of words that expresses a complete thought, begins with a capital letter, and ends with a punctuation mark. A sentence can make a statement (declarative), ask a question (interrogative), give an order (imperative), or express strong feeling (exclamatory). '''Examples:''' '''Declarative:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped and caught the ball.</blockquote>This sentence states what happened, with no excitement, so it ends with a period. '''Interrogative:'''<blockquote>When Bob jumped, did he catch the ball?</blockquote>Since this sentence is a question, it ends with a question mark. '''Imperative:'''<blockquote>Jump, Bob! Catch the ball! </blockquote>Imperative sentences can end with a period or exclamation point, depending on the level of urgency. '''Single-word imperative, with the implied noun ''you'':'''<blockquote>Jump. Catch the ball.</blockquote>'''Exclamatory:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped and caught the ball!</blockquote>Exclamatory sentences and declarative sentences are basically the same except for the ending punctuation, determined by how much excitement the sentence should convey. === Simple Sentences === A simple sentence begins with a capital letter and includes a subject (noun), predicate (verb), and ending punctuation. It should express a complete thought. '''Example:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped.</blockquote> === Compound Sentences === A compound sentence expresses more than one thought through the use of conjunctions or, if the two thoughts are very closely related, a semicolon. '''Examples:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped, and he caught the ball. Bob jumped; he caught the ball.</blockquote>Note that a semicolon is only appropriate if the two thoughts it joins are closely related and each can stand alone as a complete sentence. ==Subjects and Predicates== A complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. === Simple Subject === A simple subject is a noun that tells who or what the sentence is about. Usually a simple subject is one word. '''Example:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped.</blockquote>In the sentence, ''Bob'' is the simple subject, the who or what of the sentence. '''Example:'''<blockquote>Bob the basketball star jumped three feet in the air.</blockquote>''Bob'' is still the simple subject of the sentence. ===Simple Predicate=== The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase. It tells what the subject did, is doing, or will do. Read the following example sentence<blockquote>Bob jumped.</blockquote>In the sentence, ''jumped'' is the simple predicate, the 'what did he do?' of the sentence. Read the following example sentence:<blockquote>Bob the basketball star jumped three feet in the air.</blockquote>''Jumped'' is still the simple predicate of the sentence. === Compound Subjects and Predicates === In a compound subject, two or more nouns, usually joined by a conjunction, share the same verb; in a compound predicate, two or more verbs, usually joined by a conjunction, share the same noun. '''Examples:'''<blockquote>Bob and Rick jumped.</blockquote>Two subjects did one thing, so ''Bob and Rick'' is a compound subject.<blockquote>Rick jumped and caught the ball.</blockquote>One subject did two things, so ''jumped and caught the ball'' is a compound predicate. (While ''the ball'' is a noun, it is the object of the second verb, not part of a compound subject.) ==Conventions== ==Mood== ==Confusing Words, Idioms, Colloquialisms, and Slang== * [[Which word? Situation/Position/Condition|Situation / Position / Condition]] * [[Animal idioms]] ==See also== * [http://www.ece.msstate.edu/academics/writing_resource/grammatical_errors_links.html#apostrophe Apostrophe misuse] * Andrew Rossiter (2020). [https://linguapress.com/grammar/descriptive-grammar-english.htm A Descriptive Grammar of English]. 207 pp. {{ISBN|979-8645611750}} {{dfoot|English}} [[Category:English grammar]] [[Category:English stubs]] [[Category:Grammar stubs]] {{subpagesif}} c5qncl9azkmbrk64rnsrgb1y7su0pv9 2823193 2823192 2026-08-19T19:08:53Z Amp1976 3108483 /* Parts of Speech */ Added note to "article" definition that it is a relatively new part of speech and used to be considered an adjective. 2823193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{launch}} {{Cleanup|[[Help:Wikify|Wikify]]}} ==Introduction== English grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the English language. English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, whose speakers, called Anglophones, originated in early medieval England on the island of Great Britain. ==Origins of English== English is a West Germanic language. It came from Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain in the mid-5th to 7th centuries AD by Anglo-Saxons who migrated from what is now northwest Germany, southern Denmark and the Netherlands. It is also heavily based on [[Latin]], the language used by the Roman Empire, that existed from 27 BC to around 1453. ==English Grammar== ===Alphabet, Pronunciation, and an Introduction to Basic Pronunciation=== === Parts of Speech === There are nine different parts of speech, each with several subcategories. *'''noun''' - a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. (''Examples: girl, firefighter, dog, church, computer, friendship.)'' A common noun is lower-cased and names any person, animal, place, thing, or idea, while a proper noun denotes someone or something's name with a capital letter at the beginning of the word. <i>(Examples: Penelope, Russia.) </i> *'''verb''' - a word that describes an action or state of existence. The most common verbs you'll see are action verbs (such as run, jump, like, want), but many other kinds of verbs exist, such as the auxiliary verb, which gives functional or grammatical meaning to the sentence in which it appears (such as is, was). *'''pronoun''' - a word used in place of a noun to decrease redundancy. The pronoun 'I' is always capitalized. <i>(Examples: I, you, he, she, we, they.) </i> *'''adjective''' - a word that describes a noun. <i>(Examples: big, red, dark.) </i> *'''adverb''' - a word that modifies a verb or adjective, describing when, where, or how. <i>(Examples: quickly, yesterday, everywhere.) </i> *'''preposition''' - a word that connects a noun or pronoun to a sentence. <i>(Examples: on, at, by, as, after.) </i> *'''conjunction''' - a word that links two words, phrases, or sentences. <i>(Examples: and, or, because.) </i> *'''interjection''' - a word that conveys emotion. <i>(Examples: ahem, egad, hey, ouch.) </i> *'''article''' - a word that introduces a noun. <i>(Examples: a, an, the.) </i>Note that grammarians traditionally recognize eight parts of speech. Articles used to be a type of adjective, but are now considered a part of speech due to how differently from adjectives they behave. ===Noun Basics=== ===Verb Basics=== ====Transitivity==== ====Verb Tenses==== ===== Past Tense ===== ====== Helping Verbs in the Past Tense ====== To obtain a clear understanding of the helping verb in the English past tense, we must review the simple past, since that is what we will use for our examples. The simple past includes sentences like 'Bob jumped' or 'Bob flew.' However, when we add a helping verb that does not change the actual tense, the main verb reverts to the infinitive. '''Examples:''' <blockquote>Bob jumped. Bob flew. Bob did jump. Bob did fly. </blockquote> ===Pronoun Basics=== ===Adjective Basics=== ==Syntax, or Sentence Formation== === What is a Sentence? === At its most basic, a sentence is a word or grouping of words that expresses a complete thought, begins with a capital letter, and ends with a punctuation mark. A sentence can make a statement (declarative), ask a question (interrogative), give an order (imperative), or express strong feeling (exclamatory). '''Examples:''' '''Declarative:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped and caught the ball.</blockquote>This sentence states what happened, with no excitement, so it ends with a period. '''Interrogative:'''<blockquote>When Bob jumped, did he catch the ball?</blockquote>Since this sentence is a question, it ends with a question mark. '''Imperative:'''<blockquote>Jump, Bob! Catch the ball! </blockquote>Imperative sentences can end with a period or exclamation point, depending on the level of urgency. '''Single-word imperative, with the implied noun ''you'':'''<blockquote>Jump. Catch the ball.</blockquote>'''Exclamatory:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped and caught the ball!</blockquote>Exclamatory sentences and declarative sentences are basically the same except for the ending punctuation, determined by how much excitement the sentence should convey. === Simple Sentences === A simple sentence begins with a capital letter and includes a subject (noun), predicate (verb), and ending punctuation. It should express a complete thought. '''Example:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped.</blockquote> === Compound Sentences === A compound sentence expresses more than one thought through the use of conjunctions or, if the two thoughts are very closely related, a semicolon. '''Examples:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped, and he caught the ball. Bob jumped; he caught the ball.</blockquote>Note that a semicolon is only appropriate if the two thoughts it joins are closely related and each can stand alone as a complete sentence. ==Subjects and Predicates== A complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. === Simple Subject === A simple subject is a noun that tells who or what the sentence is about. Usually a simple subject is one word. '''Example:'''<blockquote>Bob jumped.</blockquote>In the sentence, ''Bob'' is the simple subject, the who or what of the sentence. '''Example:'''<blockquote>Bob the basketball star jumped three feet in the air.</blockquote>''Bob'' is still the simple subject of the sentence. ===Simple Predicate=== The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase. It tells what the subject did, is doing, or will do. Read the following example sentence<blockquote>Bob jumped.</blockquote>In the sentence, ''jumped'' is the simple predicate, the 'what did he do?' of the sentence. Read the following example sentence:<blockquote>Bob the basketball star jumped three feet in the air.</blockquote>''Jumped'' is still the simple predicate of the sentence. === Compound Subjects and Predicates === In a compound subject, two or more nouns, usually joined by a conjunction, share the same verb; in a compound predicate, two or more verbs, usually joined by a conjunction, share the same noun. '''Examples:'''<blockquote>Bob and Rick jumped.</blockquote>Two subjects did one thing, so ''Bob and Rick'' is a compound subject.<blockquote>Rick jumped and caught the ball.</blockquote>One subject did two things, so ''jumped and caught the ball'' is a compound predicate. (While ''the ball'' is a noun, it is the object of the second verb, not part of a compound subject.) ==Conventions== ==Mood== ==Confusing Words, Idioms, Colloquialisms, and Slang== * [[Which word? Situation/Position/Condition|Situation / Position / Condition]] * [[Animal idioms]] ==See also== * [http://www.ece.msstate.edu/academics/writing_resource/grammatical_errors_links.html#apostrophe Apostrophe misuse] * Andrew Rossiter (2020). [https://linguapress.com/grammar/descriptive-grammar-english.htm A Descriptive Grammar of English]. 207 pp. {{ISBN|979-8645611750}} {{dfoot|English}} [[Category:English grammar]] [[Category:English stubs]] [[Category:Grammar stubs]] {{subpagesif}} 6oczbav5ktnrv46bb8hm9wcvu6c090t 0 106380 2823573 2580891 2026-08-20T07:10:02Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Talking_lips.gif|Talking_lips.gif]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Herbythyme|Herbythyme]] because: Copyright violation, see [[:c:Commons:Licensing|]]. 2823573 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== [[File:The Conversation (Calgary).jpg|thumb|The Conversation]] The perception of continuous speech is a complex and difficult process. And yet, we all do this daily. Whether we are listening to a friend’s funny story, or to a powerful political speech, we use the steps involved in understanding of the stream of language that allows us to communicate with others. Our ability to put together and understand continuous speech is what makes communication possible. Without being able to comprehend continuous speech, we would be unable to understand what others are expressing – we would be isolated. The perception of speech segments and continuous speech is a truly incredible feat of the human mind. Our perception of continuous speech is different from our perception of individual words, because it is affected by the individual words and phonemes. We can never really segment thoughts into different phonemes, because their property of invariance causes them to blend together. And yet, without being able to separate these individual words, people are able to understand a whole stream of these sounds that are almost unidentifiable in isolation, and make sense of them. ==Speech Segments== ===Consonant and Vowel Identification=== [[File:Language and the Study of Language English phoneme chart.png|thumb|Language and the Study of Language English phoneme chart. Consonants and phonemes are classified.]] Vowels and consonants are identified differently. When isolated, vowels have a long, steady quality. However, the sound of a vowel is strongly influenced by the sounds around it. Consonants cannot be perceived without an accompanying vowel, but they sound shorter and require less energy to produce. For example, a person cannot make the sound of a consonant (i.e., k) without expressing a vowel sound with it. Consonants have certain properties encoded – for example, an unvoiced consonant is encoded differently than a stop consonant. However, in continuous speech, the cues used to identify vowels rely on the transition between the vowels and the consonants. Strange, Edman, and Jenkins (1979) performed a study in which people tried to identify vowels in different conditions and pairings (i.e., paired with different types of consonants in different orders). They discovered that vowels are easiest to identify when they are paired with consonants. Vowels were best identified when they were bordered on either side by consonants, but the final consonant provided more identification information than the initial consonant (Strange, Edman & Jenkins, 1979). Thus, it appears that consonants need vowels to be perceived, and vowels need consonants to be perceived correctly. [[File:California English vowel chart.png|thumb|California English vowel chart]] When vowels and consonants are combined, there are many effects. One such effect is assimilation, in which the letters of words are slurred together in coarticulation. Assimilation occurs when the features of phonemes overlap when they are paired together. Combining consonants and vowels can result in the bidirectional effect, in which phonemes have an effect on each other in pronouncing words or phrases. Phonemes are pronounced differently in anticipation of the next phoneme or as a result of the previous phoneme. Coarticulation can only occur when there is both a vowel and a consonant present. In assimilation, in the phrase “Come on,” for example, it is impossible to hear exactly where the “m” sound stops, and the second “o” sound begins. Epenthesis is another effect of the combinations of vowels and consonants in continuous speech. In this case, a letter or a syllable is inserted into the letter to make pronunciation easier. An example of this is how the word “warmth” often sounds like it contains a “p” towards the end of the word. This makes annunciation of the word easier in constant speech. The opposite case can also be true. In elision, a sound is omitted from the pronunciation of a word. For example, in the word “February,” the first “r” sound is often omitted. Assimilation, epenthesis and elision allow us to speak and understand speech more rapidly. They are adaptations to the language to assist with the flow of pronunciation. These adjustments are also the reason we can understand a continuous flow of speech, but if individual sounds were isolated from that continuous flow, they would be incomprehensible. We use context and adjust to the speaker through normalization to be able to understand language, despite all the changes through assimilation, epenthesis, and elision. ===Parallel Transmission=== Essentially, parallel transmission is when syllables affect the pronunciation of one another. Coarticulation and the bidirectional effect (discussed above) are parts of parallel transmission. The existence of parallel transmission creates the segmentation problem – we cannot tell where one phoneme ends and the other begins. This causes a problem for theories of speech perception that are based around using the phoneme as the basic unit. Some critics say that if the lines between the phonemes are blurred, they are not really individual units. Because of this criticism, it has been argued that the syllable is a better basic unit of measurement for speech perception. Contextual variance seems to support the view that phonemes are not unchanging, individual sounds. The concept suggests that, in reality, phonemes posses a quality of invariance. This quality allows the sound of the phoneme to change depending on the preceding or following sounds. Consonants, especially, have been found to be context dependent – their acoustic pattern is based on the vowel that comes after the consonant. This segmentation problem and the problem with parallel transmission are especially apparent when automated speech recognition programs are involved. Because people adjust the annunciation of phonemes in anticipation of the next phoneme, phonemes do not always sound the same. This invariance makes it difficult for programs that have been set to identify the prototypical phoneme to detect variations of that phoneme. The effects of assimilation, epenthesis and elision are especially pronounced in automated speech recognition programs. While humans are able to understand sentences with these changes involved, an automated program may not recognize them, or misperceive the words. For example, people would know the difference between “come on,” and “common,” because there is a slight variation in the phonemes and the context would provide people with clues for interpretation. However, an automated program is likely to frequently confuse one statement for the other. Automated programs are most effective when they have been adjusted to one person’s voice for a few key words and phrases. ===Voice onset time (VOT)=== [[File:Es-WikiproyectoWikpediaGrabada.ogg|thumb|Spanish voice clip. The segment boundaries are identifiable to Spanish speakers, but not to people who do not speak the language.]] Voice onset time (VOT) is the time between the unvoiced consonant and the perception of the voiced vowel. VOT is often used in the identification process of segments in continuous speech. In other words, VOT is the time between the beginning of the pronunciation of the word and the onset of the vibration of the vocal chords. For example "pa" and "ba" are two different sounds but at 50 milliseconds and longer we perceive the sound "ba" and at 20 milliseconds and shorter we perceive the sound "pa". Surprisingly at 30 milliseconds we here "pa"/"ba" making it impossible to decide which sound it actually is. In categorical perception, the length of VOTs is used to identify sounds. People hear sounds in different categories. Within phonemic categories, people are not very apt at discriminating between sounds. However, people are much better at discrimination between different phonemic categories. VOT and categorical perception allow people to distinguish between the sounds of different phonemes. The understanding of these segments is affected by the comprehension of the language. English speakers are unable to understand where the segments of speech are divided in Spanish if they do not speak that language, but can identify the segments in English. ===Phoneme Prototypes=== The concept of prototypes entails people trying to fit different vowel sounds into their graded structure of what the phoneme is supposed to sound like under ideal conditions. People compare what they actually hear to what they know the phoneme should sound like. The magnitude of the difference between what the phoneme actually sounds like and what we expect it to sound like facilitates proper identification. It is easier to make the distinction between sounds that are farther away from the prototypical sound. ===Pauses=== Pauses are an important component of speech. Depending on their placement and their duration, they tell can indicate the importance and the salience of the semantic meaning of a statement. Political speeches are powerful examples of using pauses to hold an audience and place emphasis on certain statements. The link below is a short clip from President Kennedy’s famous inaugural speech. He uses pauses to show emphasis and create excitement. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLdA1ikkoEc [[File:Terry Madonna speaking.jpg|thumb|Pauses can indicate confusion or emphasis on a particular point. Speakers use pauses strategically.]] However, pauses are not always intentional, and some must be filtered out or they will create confusion in the perception of continuous speech. Duez (1985) did a study on the perception of silent pauses in speech. She tested utterance boundary pauses (pauses between syntactically independent sequences), clause boundary pauses (pauses between clauses in the utterance), constituent boundary pauses (pauses between phrases), and within-constituent pauses (pauses between connected elements – i.e., a pronoun and an article). In her tests, she would use normal speech and inverted speech to test the difference in pause-perception. She found that in 70% of the cases, whether the speech was played normally or inverted, there was a similar perception of pauses. These results emphasize the role of prosodic features of speech, such as intonation, rhythm, and tone. She explains 30% variation through differences in semantic context. She explains that people are more likely to hear a pause when it is expected, but sometimes do not hear the pause if it is unexpected. Duez also determined that duration is positively correlated with the identification of pauses in speech (Duez, 1985). ==Continuous Speech== ===Bottom-up vs. Top-down Processing=== In bottom-up processing, people examine the sensory data and draw conclusions about what the sensory information means. In language, this means people hear the combination of phonemes and use that data to draw conclusions about which words are being produced. In top-down processing, the opposite happens. People think about what they expect to hear and, judging on the context, they fill in the blanks. Some researchers believe this phenomenon explains the phonemic restoration effect. The perception of continuous speech relies on the combination of bottom-up and top-down processing; people are able listen to the available cues and understand words as they fit with the context. The combination of processing allows us to rapidly understand continuous speech. ===Phonemic Restoration=== [[File:Chatting.jpg|thumb|The perception of continuous speech is a huge part of daily life. It allows us to interact with others. Phonemic restoration is especially useful when talking in a situation with a lot of external noises, like in a crowded room.]] Phonemic restoration is the mind’s ability to fill in the missing phoneme based on the context that is presented. Warren and Warren (1970) designed an experiment to examine phonemic restoration. They had participants come into a lab and listen to a tape in which one phoneme was removed. They used a cough paired with the word “eel” and put it into situations where the context affected how the subjects interpreted the word. For example, when put into a sentence involving shoes, participants heard “heel” instead of a cough, and the word “eel,” (Warren &Warren, 1970). The following represent additional examples: * It was found that the (cough)eel was on the axle **(cough)eel was interpreted as “wheel” * It was found that the (cough)eel was on the shoe **(cough)eel was interpreted as “heel” * It was found that the (cough)eel was on the orange **(cough)eel was interpreted as “peel” * It was found that the (cough)eel was on the table **(cough)eel was interpreted as :meal” There are two main theories regarding the process of how phonemic restoration works. The first theory is based on the sensory system. It states that the interaction between the top-down and bottom-up processing affect how the word is processed through the sensitivity effect. According to this theory, the acoustic information of a sound if affected by the context in which it is perceived. The second theory is based the cognitive representation of a word and incorporated the bias effect. In the bias effect, the top-down and bottom-up information are combined, but they do not interact as they do in the first theory. In this model, the output from the bottom-up processing system is biased by what a person is expecting via top-down processing. Follow this link to engage in an example of phonemic restoration. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlJs24j3i8E ===Gating Task=== [[File:Tidybank Cottage - geograph.org.uk - 1528307.jpg|thumb|The gating task limits the possible choices of words the phonemes could create. An easy way to remember the gating task is through the name - the gates job is to limit the amount of people allowed onto a property, and the gating task helps limit word possibilities.]] People often guess what a word will be before it is said aloud based on the context on the conversation. These predictions are more accurate when more phonemic information about the word is available. Grosjean (1980) created a task in which participants heard fragments of a word. Each fragment started at the beginning of the word and went a little longer in length. He found that there were three main points in understanding a word. The first is called the isolation point, in which the participant may be able to guess the word. The second point is called the uniqueness point, when the participant realizes there is only one word that could be correct. These two points do not necessarily yield the same word, but the idea about what the word could be is narrowed from a broad guess to a more informed evaluation. The last point is the recognition point, when the participant knows they have correctly identified the word (Grosjean, 1980). In everyday conversations, because conversations happen so quickly, there is very little time between the isolation, uniqueness and recognition point. ===The Importance of Grammar=== [[File:EGG Nonpast tense.svg|thumb|A diagram explaining how the nonpast tense is used.]] The grammar of a sentence can also strongly affect how people understand the semantics of the statement. In an experiment, Miller and Isard (1962) played white noise with sentences. They found that the words in syntactically correct sentences were easier to recognize. Participants were able to recognize grammatical sentences, such as “Accidents kill motorists on highways,” better than anomalous (but still grammatical) sentences, such as “Accidents carry honey between the house.” The participants were most unsuccessful at perceiving words in ungrammatical sentences played with white noise, such as “Around accidents country honey shoot,” (Miller & Isard, 1962). This supports the theory of top-down processing in that the context of the word clearly impacts people’s ability to understand it because they are expecting it. ===Multimodal Perception=== The perception of continuous speech clearly does not only rely on auditory input and acoustic representation, as demonstrated by phonemic restoration. However, cognitive input is not the only process that affects how sounds are interpreted; input from sensory systems can change how sounds are heard. Visual input (such a lip-reading and interpreting gestures or expressions)often helps us understand what people are saying. However, sometimes this input conflicts with the auditory input of a stimulus. In the McGurk effect, sometimes, although it sounds like someone is saying one word (i.e., “bah), when it is combined with the visual input of another word (i.e., “gah”) it can create the perception of a different sound altogether (i.e., “dah”). McGurk and MacDonald (1976) tried to explain this phenomenon by saying that “bah” has more acoustically in common with “dah” than with “gah.” Similarly, “gah” shares more visual similarities with “dah,” than with “bah.” This creates a fused perception of the auditory and visual processing systems. Since “bah” and “gah” are not similar on acoustic or visual fields, the brain finds a middle ground – “dah,” (McGurk & MacDonald, 1976). To illustrate this point, I have included a link to a video. Watch the following link three times – the first time, close your eyes and listen to the video; the second time, mute the video, and watch it; and the third time, watch the video with the sound on. The video uses a visual recording of a man saying “gah” and pairs it with the sound recording of a man saying “bah.” This creates the misperception of the word “dah.” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFPtc8BVdJk In an article written by Massaro (2001), he summarizes a number of studies he has performed over the years. He discusses the progression of how people see speech perception and how, although it was assumed to be unimodal, research has demonstrated its multimodal qualities. For example, in one study, he presented participants with an auditory, a visual, and a bimodal presentation of a phoneme. He found that people were more able to correctly identify the phonemes in the bimodal presentation than in the auditory or visual presentation. He also realized that the McGurk effect can be applied to more than just individual sounds. The auditory track of “My bab pop me poo brive,” paired with the visual stimulus of, “My gag kok me koo grive,” is understood as “My dad taught me to drive,” (Massaro, 2001). By using the McGurk effect of individual phonemes, entire strings of nonsense words can be integrated into a meaningful sentence. Green and Kuhl (1991) examined the effects that place and voicing have on the perception of continuous speech. Their research supports the theory behind the McGurk effect. They concluded that the way people classify placing and voicing is not only based on the auditory system. They suggest that either visual processes wither work in parallel with auditory processes, or are integrated into the auditory mechanisms (Green & Kuhl, 1991). ===Normalization=== [[File:Man Woman.png|thumb|People are able to normalize to a man's voice easier than to a woman's voice.]] When listening to a person speak, people are able to understand what they are saying even if they have an accent or speak very quickly. This is possible because the brain engages in normalization. There are two main forms of normalization in regards to perception of continuous speech. The first is the voice tract normalization, in which a person adjusts to a speaker. Instead of trying to match up what a person is saying to the prototypical phonemes, the listener is able to compare it to the ratio of formants. Speech rate normalization is another adaptive process that allows us to adjust to the speed at which someone speaks. Rate normalization is defined as a decrease in VOT that corresponds with an increase in utterance rate. In a series of experiments, Diehl, Souther and Convis (1980) determined that a listener’s ability to normalize to speech rate was greatly affected by the gender of the speaker. They found that, overall, people are able to normalize to male voice, but have significantly more difficulty normalizing to a female voice. In fact, the female voice seemed to have the opposite effect. Through experimentation, they found that there are certain conditions in which the gender effect can be neutralized, including adjustments in pitch and vocal-tract size (Diehl, Souther & Convis, 1980). In more recent years, research in voice tract length normalization and speech rate normalization has been used in the development of technology for automatic speech recognition. In experiments conducted by Pfau, Faltlhauser and Ruske (2001), researchers calculated an optimal warping factor to determine normalized feature vectors, which were used to aid the comprehension of automatic continuous speech. They found that by applying these vectors and using normalization, under ideal conditions, there could be up to a 17% reduction in word error rate (Pfau, Faltlhauser &Ruske, 2001). These findings may indicate that there is a way to train automated speech recognition programs to a specific voice, and to recognize the changes in speech (assimilation through coarticulation and parallel transmission, epenthesis, and elision), for a more accurate perception of continuous speech. ==Learning Exercise== This Wikiversity Learning Exercise is designed to help you connect the concepts in this article to the real world. The first four questions are based on the text, but they require critical thinking of the subject matter, including drawing on your own experience and providing examples. The other questions are related to the video links. 1. Explain the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing. State which processing system is more useful in the following situations, and why. :a. When listening to someone with a strong accent :b. When listening to someone who speak very quickly :c. When listening to someone discuss a subject you are not familiar with (hint: familiarity affects the context) 2. There are two theories about how phonemic restoration works. Which do you agree with and why? Support your argument with information in this article. 3. The three critical stages of word identification (isolation, uniqueness and recognition) allow people to predict what the word might be before it is said. :a. Using an example, explain how each stage can yield different words as the listener gains more information. :b. Explain how the gating task relates to top-down processing. 4. Explain the importance of normalization in regards to evolution. Diehl, Souther and Convis (1980) found that people are able to normalize to male voices more easily than to female voices. Provide a reasonable explanation for the gender difference in normalization, and explain how Diehl, Souther and Convis (1980) were able to neutralize the gender difference in this study. The perception of continuous speech is very different from the perception of individual words or phonemes. I created the following video to demonstrate the difference of how words sound in the context of continuous speech compared to when they are isolated. Watch the following video and try to pick out the first three words: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HwWbzgm0ySA 5. Were the words easier to understand individually or in context? Using this video as an example, explain the importance of context in regards to the perception of continuous speech. In your answer, mention the effects top-down processing and parallel transmission have on the understanding of isolated words in continuous speech. This video explains the usefulness of phonemic restoration in everyday life. Watch the following video and then answer the questions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k74KCfSDCn8 6. Rate the level of difficulty of understanding for each situation :a. Gaps in the statement were filled with silence at the beginning of the test (prior to hearing the gaps filled with noise) :b. Gaps in the statement were filled with noise :c. Gaps in the statement were filled with silence at the end of the test (after hearing the gaps filled with noise) 7. Why was it more difficult to understand the sentence in situation 6a than in situation 6c? I edited the soundtrack from the 2001 movie, “Snatch,” to take out any offensive language. In the movie, one of the characters is notoriously difficult to understand. Please follow these steps to learn about how expectancy and top-down processing can affect understanding: 8. Watch the clip and listen to the dialogue: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xSiBwuNA_Nc 9. Read the following section of the script from the movie, “Snatch” :Narrator: There was a problem with pikeys or gypsies. :Mickey: What're you doing? Get out of the way, man. :Narrator: You can't understand what's being said. :Mickey: You Tommy? Come about the caravan? Call me Mickey. :Narrator: Not Irish, not English. :Tommy: How are you? :Mickey: Weather's been kind, but it's harsh, to be honest. :Narrator: It's just, well, it's just Pikey. :Mickey: Would you look at the size of him? How big are you? Kids, how big is he? :Kids: Big man, that's for sure. :Mickey: Hey, Mam, come and look at the size of this fella. Bet you box a little, can't you, sir? You look like a boxer. :Mickey’s Mom: Get out of the way. See if they'd like a drink. :Tommy: I could murder one. :Mickey’s Mom: Be no murdering done around here, I don't mind telling you. :Mickey: Get your hands out of there, you cheeky little boy. Cup of tea for the big fella? :Mickey’s Mom: Don't be silly, Mickey. Offer the man a proper drink, boy. 10. Watch it again. 11. Explain how expectations and top-down processing affected your perception of speech in this sound clip. ==References== Carroll, D. W. Psychology of Language. Thomson Wasworth. Belmont, CA. 2008. Diehl, R. L., Souther, a F., & Convis, C. L. (1980). Conditions on rate normalization in speech perception. Perception & psychophysics, 27(5), 435-43. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7383831. Duez, Danielle. Perception of Silent Pauses in Continuous Speech. Institut de Phonétique d’Aix-en-Provence, , Language and Speech, 28:4 (1985:Oct./Dec.) p.377. (1985). Dupont, S., & Luettin, J. (2000). Audio-visual speech modeling for continuous speech recognition. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, 2(3), 141-151. doi: 10.1109/6046.865479. Green, K. P., & Kuhl, P. K. (1991). Integral processing of visual place and auditory voicing information during phonetic perception. Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance, 17(1), 278-88. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1826317. Grosjean, F. (1980) Spoken word recognition processes and the gating paradigm. Perception of Psychophysics. 1980 Oct;28(4):267-83. Jay, Timothy. The psychology of language . Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003. Print. Massaro, D.W. (2001). Speech Perception. In N.M. Smelser & P.B. Baltes (Eds.) & W. Kintsch (Section Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 12870 – 14875). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier McGurk, H & MacDonald, J. (1976), Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature (264): 746 – 748. Nature Publishing Group. Miller, G. & Isard, S. (1962) Some perceptual consequences of linguistic rules. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour. Volume 2; Issue 3., 217-228. Pfau, T., Faltlhauser, R., Ruske, G. (2001), A Combination of Speaker Normalization and Speech Rate Normalization for Automatic Speech Recognition. Institution for Human-machine-communication, München, T. U., & Munich, D.-. (n.d.). Sanders, L. D., & Neville, H. J. (2003). Brain research. Cognitive brain research, 15(3), 228-40. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12527097. Strange, W., Edman, T. R., & Jenkins, J. J. (1979). Acoustic and Phonological Factors in Vowel Identification Winifred Strange, Thomas R. Edman, and James J. Jenkins. Perception, 5(4), 643-656. Warren, R. & Warren R. (1970) Auditory illusions and confusions. Scientific American, 223 (6), 30-36. [[Category:Psycholinguistics|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Speech perception]] bn9lwq7rqxj6v7r8nghaz9up3ouuxex 0 108169 2823572 2135300 2026-08-20T07:09:59Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Talking_lips.gif|Talking_lips.gif]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Herbythyme|Herbythyme]] because: Copyright violation, see [[:c:Commons:Licensing|]]. 2823572 wikitext text/x-wiki == Language and Society == In our everyday lives, we are engage in spontaneous social acts that are interconnected with the activities of those around us without taking notice. These well-established practices are considered aspects of the social norm derived from the culture in which one habituates. The subtleness and intricacy of these spontaneous joint activities is strongly reflected not only in our social acts but also in the way language is used within social groups. Compared to cognitive research, which largely sees language as an individual process, and to social science research, which sees language as a social process, it has been argued that language use embodies both individual and social processes (Clark, 1996, p. 1)<ref>Clark H. H. (1966) Using Language. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press.</ref> When considering what people are talking about in a conversation and what they are tying to achieve by conversing, language can be seen as being used as a form of joint action (Clark, 1996, p.1) Language is more than the sum of the speaker and the listener, but the joint action that emerges when they perform their individual actions in coordination (Clark, 1996, p. 1). It can be said that everything we do and say as humans is rooted in the information we have about our perceptions, emotions, interests, activities, and surroundings (Clark, 1996, p. 92). In a given culture or subgroup, common ground, such as mutual knowledge, mutual beliefs, and mutual expectations, shift to accommodate the circumstances and the parties with whom we are conversing. Language comes to exist in conversational layers that can shift and enable the establishment of new common grounds (Clark, 1996, p. 92). In this chapter, the ways in which language functions within society is going to be thoroughly examined. This chapter will highlight the relationships between the way different subgroups think and how this determines the words used in their languages. To further understand how speech shifts as a function of one’s social situation, this chapter will look at the use of slang, sexual talk, and taboo words in different contexts. == Slang == === What is Slang? === Slang is an informal set of words and phrases that are used to reinforce or establish one’s identity within a social group or with a trend in society (Eble, 1996, p. 11)<ref> Eble, C. (1996). College Slang: in-group language among college students. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press</ref>. Slang is an important aspect of language to touch on in this chapter because it is vocabulary that embodies the social functions of language. Slang seems to be as old as language itself given that it is part of ordinary interactions in all languages in which communities are large and diverse enough to have identifiable subgroups (Eble, 1996, p.11). Because of slang’s social and psychologically complex vocabulary, four identifying criteria have been proposed (Eble, 1996, p. 11): # The presence of slang will, at least momentarily, lower the formality of serious speech. # The use of slang implies the user’s special familiarity with a class of people who also have special familiarity and use the term. # The slang term is a taboo term in discourse with people of higher social status or greater responsibility. # Slang is used as a replacement for a well-known conventional synonym to either protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional term or to protect the used from the bother of elaboration. According to authors Bethany Dumas and Jonathan Lighter, when at least two of these defining criteria are met, a linguistically sensitive audience will react to the word or phrase in some way (Eble, 1996, p.12). This immeasurable reaction is the fundamental identifying characteristic of slang (Eble, 1996, p.12). For instance, take the phrase, “that guy was a jerk for cutting me off before the intersection!” According to the criteria, jerk would qualify as slang because it satisfies criteria 1, 2, and 4. === Why Do People Use Slang? === The existence of certain slang words and phrases may in fact seem to be part of a short-lived pattern of overused terms being reinvented with new meanings when mainstream culture deems appropriate. The vocabulary of particular subgroups such as, college students, can actually illustrate this innovative characteristic of slang. For example, Dead Soldier, a military slang term that has been around since the eighteenth century when it meant ‘empty bottle’, re-emerged in 1987 at University of North Carolina with a more modern definition of ‘empty beer can’ (Eble, 1996, p. 15). Another important identifying characteristic of slang is its group-identifying function. Slang is often used when the user wants to be accepted by a select social group (Eble, 1996, p. 119). A strong sense of belonging can stem from the sharing and maintaining of an ever-changing vocabulary that undoubtedly serves to include and exclude members from social groups (Eble, 1996, p. 119). Like keeping up with fashion trends, slang must be new and appealing, and must be effective enough to gain group acceptance (Eble, 1996, p. 120). Slang’s function within subgroups is to enhance the feeling of internal solidarity and the shared vocabulary helps specific groups such as sports teams to work together in a stressful environment (Eble, 1996, p. 123). In the fall of 1990, members of the cross-country track team at UNC were using terms like rigging, which stood for the tightening of muscles at the end of a tough race, and doing carbo-loading, which stood for drinking beer after a race (Eble, 1996, p. 122). === Intergenerational Differences in Language and Slang Use === In prior linguistic research, age has been considered the principal correlate of language change among speakers (Barbieri, 2008) <ref>Barbieri, F. (2008). Patterns of age-based linguistic variation in American English.''Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12(1),''Arizona: Northern Arizona University, 58-88</ref>. An important factor to consider when studying slang is intergenerational differences in language use for instance, how language varies across the life span. Taking into account the fundamentally different nature of linguistic variation in syntactic and lexical levels amongst individuals, a linguistic analytical technique suited to the exploration of major lexico-grammatical differences is key word analysis (Barbieri, 2008). This technique is a powerful statistical approach that allows the unveiling of important lexical differences within a collection of spoken material, thus neglecting potential syntactic differences (Barbieri, 2008). To explore age-based linguistic variation in spontaneous conversation, the following study employed key word analysis on a large variety of casual conversation in American English (Barbieri, 2008). The subjects in this study were of two age groups: youths aged 15-25 and adults aged 35-60. In terms of the key word analysis, “key word” is defined as a word that occurs with unusual or outstanding frequency (Barbieri, 2008). For example, the word ''like'' is a very frequent key word among young speakers because the rate of occurrence of its use in young speakers is significantly higher than in older speakers (approximately 1,749 to 1,736 occurrences per 100,000 words respectively) (Barbieri, 2008). One of the most significant patterns that emerged from the key word analysis is younger speakers’ frequent use of slang words, ranging from taboo or swear words to non-derogatory slang words (Barbieri, 2008). Key words such as ''man'', ''dude, cool, guy, pissed, bucks, screwed, sucks, dope, booze, ''and'' bummer'' indicated that non-derogatory slang is common in American youth’s casual interaction (Barbieri, 2008). Key words ''man'', ''dude'', and ''cool'' were the three most commonly used non-derogatory slang words in younger speakers occurring among the top twenty key words (see table 1). Within the analysis of the use of key words, for the most part, older speakers’ patterns of speech were characterized as a departure from younger speakers’ norms in the fact that they had much lower use of attitudinal adjectives and lower use of slang and swear words (Barbieri, 2008). This research also indicated that the main cutoff in age-based differentiation is between the mid-twenties and that differences between the age groups above 35 years tend to become smaller (Barbieri, 2008). This study suggests that, in terms of slang use, slang is a more prominent feature of the language of the youth than of adults. Table 1: Sample key slang words output (3 of the first 25 key words from the younger corpus (Barbieri, 2008). In terms of slang use in social contexts, the current study found that ''cool'' was the most frequent slang term used amongst the youth and coincidentally, the most pervasive term of approval used by speakers born in the 1980's (Barbieri, 2008). Barbieri (2008) goes on to argue that ''cool'' is a prime example of basic slang which differs from most slang terms by two unique traits: it is pervasive, being used to express approval and to align the speaker with an attitude or set of values characterizing their generation and it endures over long periods of time. == Sexual Lexicon == === Sexual Terminology === Sexual terminology is learned at a young age through interactions with our peers (Jay, 2000, p. 85)<ref>Jay, T. B. (2000). Why we curse: the neuro-psycho-social model of speech. Philadelphia: Benjamins</ref>. Parental inhibition and punishment of the use of sexual references teaches children that sexual words are powerful (Jay, 2000, p. 85). In a study done on the topic of how children learn to talk about sex, parents discussed their difficulties and solutions with their children’s use of sexual slang (Jay, 2000, p. 124). The findings of this study revealed that learning about sexual terminology is a process of socialization (Jay, 2000, p. 125). From this study, we learn that a double standard in sex talk is obvious; parents will speak to their friends differently than to their children and fathers will speak differently with female friends than male friends (Jay, 2000, p. 125). Due to differences in socialization, daughters and sons of the same household will even acquire different sexual vocabularies (Jay, 2000, p.125). As we develop linguistically and sexually, sex talk becomes more dependent on who is listening rather than the fear of parental negation and omission that comes with sex talk (Jay, 2000, p. 86). Sexual talk is an interesting topic because it is one that holds strong personal relevance yet maintains a socially unaccepted stigma in formal contexts. The following research on sexual talk will illustrate the differences in the use of sexual language in interpersonal and social contexts. === The Four Systems of Sexual Language === As we develop psychologically and as our social contexts shift, the sexual lexicon modifies accordingly (Jay, 2000, p.127). There are four different systems for sexual talk: # child language – taught to children by parents, allowing them to describe body parts and functions without using slang or medical terms (e.g., ''wienie, tushy, poo-poo, bum'') # street language – used by peers, to indicate in-group identification and often to impress other (e.g., ''screw, make out'') # euphemisms – used to avoid using explicit terms for sex in any conversation by adults (e.g. ''making love, sleeping together'') # medical-scientific language – a technical and concrete language of sexual terms learned in school and from books (e.g., ''penis, vagina, defecate, coitus'') (Jay, 2000, p. 127) According to this set of systems, childhood terms eventually evolve into more offensive terms or euphemisms. The medical-scientific language system is used in more formal exchanges and settings. === Sexual Talk in Different Interpersonal Contexts === Given that sexual talk is highly dependent on one’s surroundings, it is not surprising that other factors play a role on how one uses sexual lexicon. Many studies have been done that look at the relationship between context and sexual terms, which highlight how the overt expression of sexual identity highly depends on social contexts. Much research has focused on the different use of sexual vocabulary amongst genders, showing that males make greater use of sexual slang than females (Wells, 1989)<ref> Wells, J. W. (1989). Sexual language use in interpersonal contexts: A comparison of gender and sexual orientation. Archives of sexual behaviour, 18, 127-143 </ref>. Given the fact that different cultures and sub-groups tend to maintain their own in-group slang, it is appropriate to consider the impact of sexual orientation on the use of sexual vocabulary. In a study investigating the use of sexual language amongst genders in different interpersonal contexts based on sexual orientation, results indicated that differences in sexual vocabulary are significant (Wells, 1989). This study used a sample of 440 heterosexual and homosexual undergraduate male and female students from the University of Northern Iowa with a mean age of 22 (Wells, 1989). A questionnaire was given to the participants asking them to write the word or phrase they would use for male genitalia, female genitalia, and sexual intercourse when with a spouse or lover, mixed-company, in a same-sex conversation, and a conversation with parents (Wells, 1989). The results shown in the following table demonstrate that lesbians used more female-oriented terms for male genitalia, love making, and oral sexual contact than did heterosexual males, homosexual males, or heterosexual females (Wells, 1989). Homosexual males used slang more often with a spouse or lover than any other group of participants (Wells, 1989). Further, heterosexual males made the largest change in language use when shifting from the primary use of slang in a same-sex context to more formal terms or euphemisms when with a spouse or lover in all sexual concepts (Wells, 1989). This study demonstrates that sexual orientation is yet another dimension that affects the use of sexual language. {| class="wikitable" |- ! '''Gender and Sexual Orientation''' !! '''Grand Total''' !! '''Mixed Company''' !! '''Same Sex''' !! '''Parents''' !! '''Spouse Lover''' |- | '''Heterosexual Male''' || Formal: 22.93; Euphemism: 26.08; Colloquial: 40.54 || Formal: 29.52; Euphemism: 33.38; Colloquial: 34.62|| Formal: 3.72; Euphemism: 11.64; Colloquial: 84.16 || Formal: 39.18; Euphemism: 28.66; Colloquial: 8.45|| Formal: 19.28; Euphemism: 38.86; Colloquial: 34.90 |- | '''Gay Male''' || Formal: 22.57; Euphemism: 18.14; Colloquial: 44.86 || Formal: 33.72; Euphemism: 22.88; Colloquial: 37.72 || Formal: 10.28; Euphemism: 12.00; Colloquial: 76.00 || Formal: 36.58; Euphemism: 22.28; Colloquial: 4.00 || Formal: 9.70; Euphemism: 15.42; Colloquial: 61.70 |- |'''Heterosexual Female''' || Formal: 35.83; Euphemism: 25.94; Colloquial: 28.23 || Formal: 37.62; Euphemism: 23.96; Colloquial: 32.46 || Formal: 30.22; Euphemism: 21.00; Colloquial: 45.244 || Formal: 46.08; Euphemism: 19.72; Colloquial: 5.54 || Formal: 29.40; Euphemism: 39.08; Colloquial: 25.90 |- | '''Lesbian''' || Formal: 27.75; Euphemism: 21.00; Colloquial: 32.50 || Formal: 31.00; Euphemism: 21.00; Colloquial: 36.00 || Formal: 26.00; Euphemism: 20.00; Colloquial: 47.00 || Formal: 33.00; Euphemism: 16.00; Colloquial: 6.00 || Formal: 21.00; Euphemism: 27.00; Colloquial: 41.00 |} Table 2. Total Language Use for Social Context by Gender and Sexual Orientation in Percentages (Wells, 1989). {| class="wikitable" |- ! '''Gender and Sexual Orientation''' !! '''Male Genitalia''' !! '''Female Genitalia''' |- | '''Heterosexual Male''' || Formal: 36.5; Euphemism: 10.6; Colloquial: 49.5 || Formal: 38.1; Euphemism: 14.6; Colloquial: 38.6 |- | '''Gay Male''' || Formal: 35.7; Euphemism: 7.2; Colloquial: 47.9 || Formal: 37.9; Euphemism: 3.6; Colloquial: 42.9 |- | '''Heterosexual Female''' || Formal: 50.2; Euphemism: 9.5; Colloquial: 33.7 || Formal: 51.6; Euphemism: 23.1; Colloquial: 16.2 |- | '''Lesbian''' || Formal: 42.5; Euphemism: 2.5; Colloquial: 45.0 || Formal: 37.5; Euphemism: 21.2; Colloquial: 26.2 |} Table 3. Total Language Use for Sexual Context by Gender and Sexual Orientation in Percentages (Wells, 1989). == Taboo Words == === A Relevant Aspect of Language === It is important to note that when scholars disregard swearing as an irrelevant aspect of language, we are left with a false understanding of verbal communication (Jay, 2009). In the past, psycholinguists strongly held Noam Chomsky’s structuralist theory of language, which did not touch on the idea of emotional language at all (Jay, 2009)<ref>Jay, T. (2009). The utility and ubiquity of taboo words. Perspectives on psychological science. 4(2), 153-161 </ref>. For a more complete understanding of language, conventional interpretations of language must expand to include the communication of emotional information, which is spoken and understood through word choice, emphasis, and speech volume (Jay, 2009). It has been argued that the emotional aspects of words are stored in the brain along with the word’s semantic and syntactic properties (Jay, 2009). Once a semantic network with lexical emotional information develops, emotion can be used as a basis for lexical access when swearing (Jay, 2009). This means that once emotional words are processed with information regarding their level of arousal, offensiveness, and appropriateness, the use can choose to use an offensive or inoffensive word (Jay, 2009). Given some background information on how taboo words are processed and expelled, the next section will discuss the origin of taboo words, why they exit, and what motivates people to use them. === What Are Taboo Words and Why Do They Exist? === According to the ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', a taboo is a “ban or inhibition resulting from social custom or aversion” (Jay, 2009). Taboo words, or swear words, are deemed offensive at an institutional and social level (Jay, 2009). Taboo words acquire this offensive status and arousing effects by aversive classical conditioning (Jay, 2009). As children, we are taught that swear words are bad and when they are used, punishment is often the result. Hence, swear words are leaned through the socialization of speech. === History of Taboo Words === The use of taboo words in language goes back to ancient history. Religious authorities have prohibited profanity and blasphemy since biblical times (Jay, 2009). More recently, in 1966, ethnic slurs such as Redskin were being used; a term coined by the first British settlers to describe the Native American Indians (Allen, 1990, p. 3)<ref>Allan, I. L. (1990). Unkind words: Ethnic labeling from Redskin to WASP. New York: Bergin & Garvey </ref>. As other ethnic groups arrived and the country became more diverse, the name-calling increased exponentially (Allen, 1990, p.3). Many taboo terms originated from great events in American history such as waves of immigration, urbanization, wars, and depressions (Allen, 1990, p.4). Today, taboos in English tend to be primarily based on sexual, profane, and blasphemous references and new terms are constantly emerging, especially in slang (Jay, 2009). === Taboo Words and Social Context === As with the use of slang and sexual talk, the use and interpretation of taboo words depends on contextual variables. For instance, in the previously discussed college study where students were asked to list which sexual terms they would use in different contexts (i.e. with a partner, lover, parent, or mixed company), technical terms were said to be more likely used with mixed crowd and with parents whereas sexual obscenities were used with same-sex crowds and with a partner or lover (Wells, 1989). Ultimately, the offensiveness and appropriateness of swear words are determined by the relationship between those conversing as well as the social setting (Jay, 2009). This sense of offensiveness is also determined by age and level of maturity (Jay, 2009). For instance, a young boy would find terms such as baby and wimp to be more offensive than adults (Jay, 2009). The task at hand for the social speaker is to determine what words are appropriate in a given social setting. == Conclusion == This chapter identified the ways in which language functions within society through examining the means by which different subgroups’ unique thought processes determine the words used in their language. To understand speech as a function of one’s social situation, this chapter discussed how the use of slang, sexual talk, and taboo words are dependent on social cues in their immediate or enduring social state. It was noted that slang term use is somewhat dependent on mainstream culture (Eble 1996), its means of enabling the identification and acceptance by social groups (Eble 1996), and its function of aligning the speaker with a set of values characterized by their generation (Barbieri 2008). This chapter also revealed that sexual talk is dependent on who is listening (Jay, 2000) and on one's gender, sexual orientation and interpersonal context (Well, 1989). Lastly, this chapter explained that offensiveness and appropriateness of taboo words are determined by the relationship of those who are conversing and on the social setting of the speaker (Jay, 2009). == Learning Exercise Part 1 == The following link is of a video depicting two instances in which people speak differently depending on their interpersonal context. In the first scene, a mother and daughter are engaging in a conversation about sexual activity. The second scenario is of the daughter and a friend engaging in a conversation about sexual activity while using slang terms. Please watch the video from this link and then answer the following questions.[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v6yTVLFa8xc Learning Exercise Video] === Questions === 1. Based on information from this chapter, does it seem fitting that the mother used the formal term "sexual intercourse" when discussing the subject of sexual activity with her daughter as opposed to a more casual term like, "sex"? Why or why not? 2. How many slang terms were used in the second scenario? What were they and how would you define them? 3. Based on information from this chapter, does it seem fitting that the friends were using many slang terms when conversing? Why? 4. When using the slang term, "cool", which of Eble's (1996) identifying criteria are met, if any? == Learning Exercise Part 2- Essay Question== Please watch the following link depicting the use of taboo words in different scenarios and then answer the following essay question. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQdaGAoKdoE Learning Exercise Part 2- Taboo Words] [[File:P social sciences-blue.png|right|350px|x]] As discussed in the chapter, words acquire offensive status and arousing effects by aversive classical conditioning (Jay, 2009). From a young age, children are taught that swear words are "bad" and are often punished as a consequence of their use. Through the socialization of speech, children recognize the negative connotation of swear words, enabling less than favourable associations to the use of taboo words. As we grow into adolescence and adulthood however, as you can see from the video, using taboo words is highly dependent on one's social context. While swearing is forbidden amongst parent and child in the video's fictional household, taboo word use is not deemed offensive when used casually between a couple having a conversation about a hard day at work. Why is it considered wrong to use vulgarity in different social contexts? While taboo words seem to lose their intrinsically unethical status somewhere between childhood to adulthood, they are still often deemed offensive at an institutional and social level (Jay, 2009). Yet, one must consider why it is that it can be far more hurtful to speak a sentence composed of a handful of every day words than it can with any one curse word, or even a combination of cruse words, yet taboo words maintain this offensive status? Through social pressures such as shame, shunning, and encouragement, some behaviors are deemed acceptable while others are not; among these are using highly informal and inappropriate language in many settings. Upon reading this chapter and watching the video for learning exercise (part 2), please discuss your opinion on the topic of taboo word use. In your response, consider ethics as well as the important aspect of language use as a function of one's social context. == Learning Exercise Part 3 == Test your knowledge on slang, jargon, and taboo word use from this chapter by filling out the crossword puzzle below! [[File:Crossword.tiff|left|Crossword]] Across <br> 1. Taboo words are, in fact, a _______ aspect of language. <br> 4. According to Clark (1996), what kind of action emerges from the social coordination of speakers during a conversation? <br> 7. Aside from Eble’s (1996) list of criteria, another important identifying characteristic of slang is its _______-________ function. <br> 11. Sexual ________ has an effect on language use amongst genders in different interpersonal contexts.<br> 13. According to Well 1989, heterosexual _______ make the largest shift in language use when changing from the primary use of slang in a same-sex context to more formal terms when with a spouse or lover. <br> 15. Ultimately, the offensiveness and appropriateness of taboo words are determined by the relationship between those conversing as well as the social ________. <br> 16. How many slang identifying criteria are set out by Eble (1996)? <br> 17. As we develop, sex talk becomes more dependent on who is ______ rather than the fear of parental negation and omission that comes with sex talk. <br> 18. The third system of sexual language described by Jay (2000). <br> 19. Taboo words acquire an offensive status and arousing effects by aversive ________ conditioning. <br> Down <br> 2. This technique is a powerful statistical approach that allows the unveiling of important lexical differences within a collection of spoken material, thus neglecting potential syntactic differences.<br> 3. The word, _____, is a prime example of basic slang which differs from most slang terms.<br> 5. According to Barbeiri, what has been considered the principal correlate of language change among speakers? <br> 6. Slang is the _______ that embodies the social functions of language. <br> 8. Among the identifying criteria for slang set out by Eble (1996), one implies the need for a speaker’s special _____ with a class of people who also use the term. <br> 9. It has been argued that language use embodies both individual and ______ processes. <br> 10. ‘Dead Soldier’, a military slang term that has been around since the eighteenth century when it meant ‘empty bottle’, re-emerged in 1987 at University of North Carolina with a more modern definition of ‘empty _____ can’. <br> 12. Much like _______, one must keep up with slang to ensure the use of new and appealing terms that are effective enough to gain group acceptance. <br> 14. Parental inhibition and _______ of the use of sexual references teaches children that sexual words are powerful. <br> == Answers == === Part 1 Answers === Question 1: Yes because the college student experiment in Wells (1989) explains that technical terms are more likely to be used with parents whereas sexual obscenities are more likely to be used among same-sex crowds and with a partner or lover (Wells, 1989). Question 2: Three ("vibing"= enjoying each other's company, "cool"= acting in a relaxed, fun, aspiring manner, "it"= used in this case to mean "sexual intercourse") Question 3: Yes. The group-identifying function of slang makes its an important characteristic of communication that enables and encourages acceptance among members of select social groups (Eble, 1996). The girls in the video were likely using many slang terms when conversing due to the strong sense of belonging that stems from keeping up with the latest trends in language. Question 4: All four of Eble's (1996) identifying criteria are met: The presence of slang will, at least momentarily, lower the formality of serious speech; The use of slang implies the user’s special familiarity with a class of people who also have special familiarity and use the term; The slang term is a taboo term in discourse with people of higher social status or greater responsibility; Slang is used is used as a replacement for a well-known conventional synonym to either protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional term or to protect the used from the bother of elaboration. === Part 3 Answers === # social # joint action # vocabulary # four # familiarity # beer # group-identifying # fashion # age # linguistic analytical # cool # punishment # listening # euphemisms # orientation # males # relevant # classical # setting == References == <references/> {{CourseCat}} rxas3lgauheb9wh5sys1r4nfaj7refv 0 134346 2823168 1960716 2026-08-19T16:35:11Z Yetyetty1234567890 3108466 formatting changes to make it a bit more readable 2823168 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <big>This is a lesson in in the course, [[Theory of Programming Languages]], which is a part of [[School:Computer Science|The School of Computer Science]]</big> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ==Objective== [[file:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01f.png|right|100px]] In this lesson, students will be introduced to programming languages and the distinctions between them. Students will be able to answer: *What is a language? *How is a programming language different than a natural language? *What is the difference between a High Level Language(HLL) and a Low Level Language(LLL)? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ==Introduction== Programming languages are special purpose languages used to instruct machines and express the semantics of algorithms. They were invented to make machines easier to use, as many processes that were once done manually could be automated in logical ways and are still being written to this day to make different logical or mechanical problems easier to solve. Programming languages are strikingly different from human languages as they are highly formal and logical, yet many of the concepts applied can be directly compared to human language. Programming languages can be divided in many ways, but the clearest distinction is between "Low Level Languages" (LLL) and "High Level Languages" (HLL). ==Basic Automata Theory== In order to understand what a language is, one must also understand the state machines that correspond to each type of language. Theoretically, there exists an infinite number of languages. There exist languages for practically every application, including natural language. There exists languages for parsing the syntactic structure of DNA sequences, for example, which is a branch of Regulated Rewriting. Here, we will not go into advanced topics such as this, but the important thing to note is that everything is a language. Basic interactions with electrical devices, zipping and unzipping a backpack, making a sandwich, are all examples of strings in a language. For the computer scientist, everything is a language. The most basic type of automaton is a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA). This is also called a finite-state machine, although a Turing machine also may have a finite number of states, so this is not the best term in a mathematical context. A DFA has a starting state, a set of final (accepting) states, a set of all states, an alphabet. A string is a sequence of characters from the alphabet. A language is defined as the set of all strings that will take you from the starting state to an accepting state. Thus, if a DFA has a state that is a "dead end," and doesn't lead anywhere, and is not an accepting state, then the string that transitions to that state is not in the language. ==Low Level Languages== [[File:IDT_R4700_diephoto2.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A R4700 Orion chip, which runs the LLL MIPS.]] LLLs are very simple, often based directly on the machines which they control - different brands of computer chips use different LLLs. Low Level Languages are also unique in that they can be directly represented by machine code, made of electrical signals or other physical processes. These languages can be represented using simple strings of text but even with that level of detail, humans have great difficulty reading the code - they are primarily the mother tongue of the machine. This is an example of a lower level language called MIPS assembly: add $t3, $a0, $t0 lw $t3, 0($t0) sub $v0, $0, $t1 srl $v2,$t1, $s7 Because MIPS assembly (or assembly language) is a LLL, it can be directly represented in binary form. Here is that same program written in its binary counterpart: 00000000100010000101100000100000 10001101000010110000000000000000 00000000000010010001000000100010 00000000000010010000010111000010 Binary is often written in hexadecimal format to reduce size: 00885820 8D0B0000 00091022 000905C2 As you can clearly tell, it is hard to read "008858208D0B000000091022000905C2" and discern the program behind it. This is why people tend to avoid LLLs unless they are directly working with or learning about the hardware within a computer. Around the time of the beginning of the advent of computing, Assembly language was considered high-level, and made it possible to program a microprocessor to perform complicated tasks. In this same respect, to someone who is designing computer hardware, the Assembly language is relatively high level even today. Assembly language is assembled by an assembler into a table of address-value pairs. The best way to understand low-level programming in assembly is to assemble your program yourself by hand. Different types of instructions might take up different amounts of memory. For example, ALU instructions will usually be completed in two clock cycles. In the first clock cycle, the instruction is loaded to the instruction register. In the second clock cycle, the instruction is fed from the instruction register to the ALU, which then performs the calculation before the next clock cycle. The main reason for relying on clock cycles in CPU design (apart from storing memory in registers) is to provide a type of buffer for the digital circuits so that the propagation delay of one part of a circuit does not cause unexpected behavior in another part of the circuit. After executing the ALU (r-type) instruction, the program counter is incremented. Since the program counter might be driving the address bus, the data bus will be read from the next piece of memory. Assembly programming can be uniquely powerful because each assembled instruction is built directly into the hardware, so performance is practically unmatched. Also, state machines can be easily mapped to equivalent assembly programs. The mathematical theory of languages is concerned primarily with 2 equivalent representations of languages: state machines and formal grammar. Thus, a solid understanding of assembly programming is vital to connecting abstract mathematical representations of languages to the physical hardware. ==High Level Languages== High Level languages, while just as logical as their lower level siblings, provide other useful features. Besides being much easier for a human to read, these languages are not based on a specific machine - they are translated down by "compilers", "interpreters" and "virtual machines" into LLLs. (This process will be covered in later lessons, at this point simply understand that HLLs can run on a variety of machines while LLLs are limited to a single type.) HLLs are also less efficient than LLLs because they need to be translated to machine code, but this extra step gives a computer the chance to check code for logical errors. Generally, HLLs are easier for people to learn and are more pleasing to work with - but they are less efficient than LLLs and are more distantly connected to the machines they run on. High Level Languages fall into several main varieties: Imperative, Object Oriented, Functional, and Logical. Later lessons will go into detail describing the pros and cons of each type. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ==Assignments== [[File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg|right|100px]] # Make a list of 15 programming languages. Write down if they are a HLL or LLL - if they are a HLL write down which type they are (Logical, Imperative, etc). # Find out which kind of LLL each computer in your house uses (this includes cell phones). To do this you will need to look up what type of processor it uses, and then find what language that processor runs. # Make a list of your favorite programs, find out what languages they are written in. # Read [[Wikibooks:Programming Languages/Introduction|The Introduction]] from your textbook. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} {{launch}} * [[General Syntactic Structure | Next Lesson]] * [[Theory of Programming Languages | Course Home Page]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[Category:Computer science courses]] [[Category:Computer programming]] [[Category:Programming languages]] m9cd7ealfa2y2cb1l79ywfjd34ws0ew 0 139384 2823140 2822773 2026-08-19T14:11:42Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2823140 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260818.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260818.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 9b5ncyu07bhnfulp7niedrn8739a51u 2823144 2823140 2026-08-19T14:13:35Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2823144 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260819.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260819.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] b34a2w3lv2e5orlpobcm4xyqupokbq8 0 163700 2823628 2811101 2026-08-20T11:28:54Z ~2026-45608-89 3108650 about the actual background of de broglie 2823628 wikitext text/x-wiki {{physics}} {{unmaintained}} According to [[w:wave-particle duality |wave-particle duality]], the '''De Broglie wavelength''' is a wavelength manifested in all the objects in quantum mechanics which determines the probability density of finding the object at a given point of the [[wikipedia:Configuration_space_(physics)|configuration space]]. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum. == Definition == In 1925 a German physicist [[w:Louis de Broglie |Louis de Broglie]] assumed that for particles the same relations are valid as for the photon: <ref>L. de Broglie, ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'' (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, ''Ann. Phys.'' (Paris) '''3''', 22 (1925).</ref> :<math>~ E= h \nu , \qquad </math> <math>~c= \lambda \nu , \qquad </math> <math>~ E= \frac {hc} {\lambda} = pc, \qquad </math> where <math>~ E</math> and <math>~ p</math> are the energy and momentum of the photon, <math>~ \nu </math> and <math>~ \lambda </math> are the [[frequency]] and wavelength of the photon, <math>~ h </math> is the [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]], <math>~ c </math> is the speed of light. From this we obtain the definition of the de Broglie wavelength through the Planck constant and the relativistic momentum of the particle: :<math>~\lambda_B = \frac {h} {p}. \qquad \qquad (1) </math> Unlike photons, which always move at the same velocity, which is equal to the speed of light, the momenta of the particles according to the [[special relativity]] depend on the mass <math>~ m </math> and velocity <math>~ v </math> by the formula: :<math>~ p = \frac {mv} {\sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} }. </math> A simplified equation for the de Broglie wavelength, accurate for speeds much less than ''c'', is so: :<math>~ \lambda = \frac {h} {mv}. </math> == Derivation of the formula for the de Broglie wavelength == There are several explanations for the fact that in experiments with particles de Broglie wavelength is manifested. However, not all these explanations can be represented in mathematical form, or they do not provide a physical mechanism, justifying formula (1). === Waves inside the particles === When particles are excited by other particles in the course of the experiment or during the collision of particles with measuring instruments, internal standing waves can occur in the particles. They can be electromagnetic waves or waves associated with the strong interaction of particles, with [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]], etc. With the help of Lorentz transformations, we can translate the wavelength of these internal oscillations into the wavelength detected by an external observer, conducting the experiment with moving particles. The calculation provides the formula for the de Broglie wavelength, <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/wGPU Fizika i filosofiia podobiia ot preonov do metagalaktik], Perm, pages 544, 1999. {{ISBN|5-8131-0012-1}}. </ref> <ref name=fed5> [[User:Fedosin | Sergey Fedosin]], [https://www.morebooks.de/store/gb/book/the-physical-theories-and-infinite-hierarchical-nesting-of-matter-volume-1/isbn/978-3-659-57301-9 The physical theories and infinite hierarchical nesting of matter], Volume 1, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, pages: 580, {{ISBN|978-3-659-57301-9}}.</ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0006 The radius of the proton in the self-consistent model]. Hadronic Journal, 2012, Vol. 35, No. 4, P. 349 – 363.</ref> as well as the propagation speed of the de Broglie wavelength: :<math>~ c_B = \frac { \lambda_B} {T_B }= \frac {c^2}{v}, </math> where <math>~ T_B </math> is the period of oscillation of the de Broglie wavelength. Thus, we determine the main features associated with the wave-particle duality – if the energy of internal standing waves in the particles reaches the rest energy of these particles, then the de Broglie wavelength is calculated in the same way as the wavelength of photons at a corresponding momentum. If the energy <math>~ E_e </math> of excited particles is less than the rest energy <math>~ mc^2 </math>, then the wavelength is given by the formula: :<math>~\lambda_2 = \frac {h c^2 \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e v}= \frac {h} {p_ e } \geqslant \lambda_B, \qquad \qquad (2) </math> where <math>~ p_ e </math> is the momentum of the mass-energy, which is associated with the internal standing waves and moves with the particle at velocity <math>~ v </math>. It is obvious that in the experiments the de Broglie wavelength (1) is mainly manifested as the boundary and the lowest value for the wavelength (2). At the same time, experiments with a set of particles cannot give an unambiguous value of the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> according to formula (2) – if excitation energies of the particles are not controlled and vary for different particles, the range of values will be too large. The higher the energies of interactions and of particles’ excitation are, the closer they will be to the rest energy, and the closer the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> will be to the <math>~\lambda_ B </math>. Light particles, like electrons, achieve more rapidly the velocity of the order of the speed of light, become relativistic and at low energies demonstrate quantum and wave properties. Besides the de Broglie wavelength, Lorentz transformations give another wavelength and its period: :<math>~\lambda_1 = \frac {h c \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e }= \frac {h v } { c p_ e }= \frac {\lambda_2 v}{c} = \lambda' \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2},</math> :<math>~ T_1 = \frac {\lambda_1} {v}.</math> This wavelength is subject to Lorentz contraction as compared to the wavelength <math>~\lambda' </math> in the reference frame associated with the particle. In addition, this wave has a propagation speed equal to the velocity of the particle. In the limiting case, when the excitation energy of the particle is equal to the rest energy, <math>~ E_e = mc^2 </math>, for the wavelength we have the following: :<math>~\lambda_{1f} = \frac {h \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } { mc }.</math> The obtained wavelength is nothing but the [[w:Compton wavelength |Compton wavelength]] in the Compton effect with correction for the Lorentz factor. In the described picture the appearance of a de Broglie wave and the wave-particle duality are interpreted as a purely relativistic effect, arising as a consequence of the Lorentz transformation of the standing wave moving with the particle. Moreover, since the de Broglie wavelength behaves like the photon wavelength with the corresponding momentum, which unites particles and waves, de Broglie wavelengths are considered probability waves associated with the wave function. In quantum mechanics, it is assumed that the squared amplitude of the wave function at a given point in the coordinate representation determines the probability density of finding the particle at this point. The electromagnetic potential of particles decreases in inverse proportion of the distance from the particle to the observation point, the potential of strong interaction in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]] behaves the same way. When internal oscillations start in the particle, the field potential around the particle starts oscillating too, and consequently, the amplitude of the de Broglie wavelength is growing rapidly while approaching the particle. This corresponds precisely to the fact that the particle most likely is at the place, where the amplitude of its wave function is the greatest. This is true for a pure state, for example, for a single particle. But in a mixed state, when the wave functions of several interacting particles are taken into consideration, the interpretation that connects the wave functions and probabilities becomes less accurate. In this case, the wave function would more likely reflect the total amplitude of the combined de Broglie wave, associated with the total amplitude of the combined wave field of the particles’ potentials. Lorentz transformations to determine the de Broglie wavelength were used also in the article. <ref> Masanori Sato and Hiroki Sato. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/category/27-issue-2-june-2012.html Interpretation of De Broglie Waves: At What Time Does a Massive Particle Obtain the Properties of a Wave?] Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 150-156. </ref> Derivation of the de Broglie phase wave through the standing (Doppler shifted) electromagnetic waves inside the particles is described in the article <ref> J. X. Zheng-Johansson and Per-Ivar Johansson. [http://www.ptep-online.com/2006/PP-07-07.PDF Developing de Broglie Wave]. Progress in physics. 2006, Vol. 4, P.32-35. </ref>. In addition, in the article <ref> Malik Mohammad Asif. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/153-18-pdf-malik-mohammad-asif-de-broglie-wave-and-electromagnetic-travelling-wave-model-of-electron-and-other-charged-particles.html de Broglie wave and electromagnetic traveling wave model of electron and other charged particles]. Physics Essays. 2014, Vol. 27, P. 146-164. </ref> is assumed that inside a particle there is a rotary electromagnetic wave. According to the conclusion in the article, <ref> J. Domínguez-Montes and E. L. Eisman, [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/165-10-pdf-j-dominguez-montes-and-e-l-eisman-representative-model-of-particle-wave-duality-and-entanglement-based-on-de-broglie-s-interpretation.html Representative model of particle-wave duality and entanglement based on De Broglie's interpretation]. Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 215-220. </ref> outside the moving particle should be the De Broglie wave with amplitude modulation. === Electrons in atoms === The motion of electrons in atoms occurs by means of rotation around the atomic nuclei. In the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial electron model |substantial model]] the electrons have the form of disk-shaped clouds. This is the result of the action of four approximately equal by magnitude forces, which arise from: 1) attraction of the electron to the nucleus due to [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] and Coulomb attraction of the charges of electron and nucleus, 2) repulsion of the charged electron matter from itself, and 3) runaway of the electron matter from the nucleus due to rotation, which is described by the centripetal force. In the hydrogen atom the electron in the state with the minimum energy can be modeled by a rotating disk, the inner edge of which has the radius <math>~ \frac {1}{2} r_B </math> and the outer edge has the radius <math>~ \frac {3}{2} r_B </math>, where <math>~ r_B </math> is the Bohr radius. <ref name=fed5/> If we assume that the electron’s orbit in the atom includes <math>~ n </math> of de Broglie wavelengths, then in case of a circular orbit with the radius <math>~ r </math>, for the circle perimeter and the angular momentum of the electron <math>~ L </math> we will obtain the following: :<math>~ 2 \pi r = n \lambda_B, \qquad L= r p= \frac { n h }{2 \pi }, \qquad \lambda_B = \frac {h}{p}.\qquad (3) </math> This corresponds to the postulate of the [[w:Bohr model |Bohr model]], according to which the angular momentum of the hydrogen atom is quantized and proportional to the number of the orbit <math>~ n </math> and the Planck constant. However, the excitation energy in the matter of electrons in atoms on the stationary orbits normally does not equal the rest energy of the electrons as such, and therefore the spatial quantization of the de Broglie wave along the orbit in the form (3) should be explained in some other way. In particular, it was shown that on the stationary orbits in the electron matter distributed over the space the equality holds of the kinetic matter energy flux and the sum of energy fluxes from the electromagnetic field and field of the strong gravitation. <ref name=fed5/> In this case the field energy fluxes do not slow down or rotate the electron matter. This causes the equilibrium circular and elliptical orbits of the electron in the atom. It turns out that the angular momenta are quantized proportionally to the Planck constant, which leads in the first approximation to relation (3). Besides, in transitions from one orbit to another, which is closer to the nucleus, the electrons emit photons, which carry the energy <math>~ \Delta W</math> and the angular momentum <math>~ \Delta L </math> away from the atom. For a photon the wave-particle duality is reduced to the direct relation between these quantities, and their ratio <math>~\Delta W / \Delta L </math> is equal to the average angular frequency of the photon wave and at the same time to the average angular velocity of the electron <math>~ \omega</math>, which under corresponding conditions emits the photon in the atom during its rotation. If we assume that for each photon <math>~ \Delta L =\frac { h }{2 \pi }= \hbar</math>, where <math>~ \hbar</math> is the [[w:Planck constant|Planck constant]], then for the photon energy we obtain: <math>~ W = \hbar \omega </math>. In this case, during the atomic transitions the electron’s angular momentum also changes with <math>~ \Delta L =\hbar </math>, and the formula (3) should hold for the angular momentum quantization in the hydrogen atom. In the electron’s transition from one stationary state to another, the annular flux of the kinetic energy and the internal field fluxes change inside its matter, as well as their momenta and energies. At the same time, the electron energy in the nuclear field changes, the photon energy is emitted, the electron momentum increases and the de Broglie wavelength decreases in (3). Thus, emission of the photon as the electromagnetic field quantum from the atom is accompanied by changing of the field energy fluxes in the electron matter, both processes are associated with the field energies and with the change of the electron’s angular momentum, which is proportional to <math>~ \hbar </math>. From (3) it seems that on the electron orbit <math>~ n </math> de Broglie wavelengths can be located. But at the same time the electron’s excitation energy does not reach its rest energy, as it is required to describe the de Broglie wavelength in the forward motion of the particles. Instead, we obtain the relationship between the angular momentum and energy fluxes in the electron matter in stationary states and the change of these angular momenta and fluxes during emission of photons. == References == <references/> == External links == * [http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/%D0%94%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8F De Broglie wavelength in Russian] * [http://engineeringunits.com/de-broglie-wavelength-calculator/ de broglie wavelength calculator] {{ Quantum mechanics }} [[Category:Atomic physics]] [[Category:Quantum mechanics]] [[Category:Waves]] 67vvn2rli6vx3b37ln0t16k7vsooju3 2823629 2823628 2026-08-20T11:30:01Z ~2026-45608-89 3108650 correcting the formula 2823629 wikitext text/x-wiki {{physics}} {{unmaintained}} According to [[w:wave-particle duality |wave-particle duality]], the '''De Broglie wavelength''' is a wavelength manifested in all the objects in quantum mechanics which determines the probability density of finding the object at a given point of the [[wikipedia:Configuration_space_(physics)|configuration space]]. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum. == Definition == In 1925 a German physicist [[w:Louis de Broglie |Louis de Broglie]] assumed that for particles the same relations are valid as for the photon: <ref>L. de Broglie, ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'' (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, ''Ann. Phys.'' (Paris) '''3''', 22 (1925).</ref> :<math>~ E= h \mu , \qquad </math> <math>~c= \lambda \mu , \qquad </math> <math>~ E= \frac {hc} {\lambda} = pc, \qquad </math> where <math>~ E</math> and <math>~ p</math> are the energy and momentum of the photon, <math>~ \nu </math> and <math>~ \lambda </math> are the [[frequency]] and wavelength of the photon, <math>~ h </math> is the [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]], <math>~ c </math> is the speed of light. From this we obtain the definition of the de Broglie wavelength through the Planck constant and the relativistic momentum of the particle: :<math>~\lambda_B = \frac {h} {p}. \qquad \qquad (1) </math> Unlike photons, which always move at the same velocity, which is equal to the speed of light, the momenta of the particles according to the [[special relativity]] depend on the mass <math>~ m </math> and velocity <math>~ v </math> by the formula: :<math>~ p = \frac {mv} {\sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} }. </math> A simplified equation for the de Broglie wavelength, accurate for speeds much less than ''c'', is so: :<math>~ \lambda = \frac {h} {mp}. </math> == Derivation of the formula for the de Broglie wavelength == There are several explanations for the fact that in experiments with particles de Broglie wavelength is manifested. However, not all these explanations can be represented in mathematical form, or they do not provide a physical mechanism, justifying formula (1). === Waves inside the particles === When particles are excited by other particles in the course of the experiment or during the collision of particles with measuring instruments, internal standing waves can occur in the particles. They can be electromagnetic waves or waves associated with the strong interaction of particles, with [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]], etc. With the help of Lorentz transformations, we can translate the wavelength of these internal oscillations into the wavelength detected by an external observer, conducting the experiment with moving particles. The calculation provides the formula for the de Broglie wavelength, <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/wGPU Fizika i filosofiia podobiia ot preonov do metagalaktik], Perm, pages 544, 1999. {{ISBN|5-8131-0012-1}}. </ref> <ref name=fed5> [[User:Fedosin | Sergey Fedosin]], [https://www.morebooks.de/store/gb/book/the-physical-theories-and-infinite-hierarchical-nesting-of-matter-volume-1/isbn/978-3-659-57301-9 The physical theories and infinite hierarchical nesting of matter], Volume 1, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, pages: 580, {{ISBN|978-3-659-57301-9}}.</ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0006 The radius of the proton in the self-consistent model]. Hadronic Journal, 2012, Vol. 35, No. 4, P. 349 – 363.</ref> as well as the propagation speed of the de Broglie wavelength: :<math>~ c_B = \frac { \lambda_B} {T_B }= \frac {c^2}{v}, </math> where <math>~ T_B </math> is the period of oscillation of the de Broglie wavelength. Thus, we determine the main features associated with the wave-particle duality – if the energy of internal standing waves in the particles reaches the rest energy of these particles, then the de Broglie wavelength is calculated in the same way as the wavelength of photons at a corresponding momentum. If the energy <math>~ E_e </math> of excited particles is less than the rest energy <math>~ mc^2 </math>, then the wavelength is given by the formula: :<math>~\lambda_2 = \frac {h c^2 \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e v}= \frac {h} {p_ e } \geqslant \lambda_B, \qquad \qquad (2) </math> where <math>~ p_ e </math> is the momentum of the mass-energy, which is associated with the internal standing waves and moves with the particle at velocity <math>~ v </math>. It is obvious that in the experiments the de Broglie wavelength (1) is mainly manifested as the boundary and the lowest value for the wavelength (2). At the same time, experiments with a set of particles cannot give an unambiguous value of the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> according to formula (2) – if excitation energies of the particles are not controlled and vary for different particles, the range of values will be too large. The higher the energies of interactions and of particles’ excitation are, the closer they will be to the rest energy, and the closer the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> will be to the <math>~\lambda_ B </math>. Light particles, like electrons, achieve more rapidly the velocity of the order of the speed of light, become relativistic and at low energies demonstrate quantum and wave properties. Besides the de Broglie wavelength, Lorentz transformations give another wavelength and its period: :<math>~\lambda_1 = \frac {h c \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e }= \frac {h v } { c p_ e }= \frac {\lambda_2 v}{c} = \lambda' \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2},</math> :<math>~ T_1 = \frac {\lambda_1} {v}.</math> This wavelength is subject to Lorentz contraction as compared to the wavelength <math>~\lambda' </math> in the reference frame associated with the particle. In addition, this wave has a propagation speed equal to the velocity of the particle. In the limiting case, when the excitation energy of the particle is equal to the rest energy, <math>~ E_e = mc^2 </math>, for the wavelength we have the following: :<math>~\lambda_{1f} = \frac {h \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } { mc }.</math> The obtained wavelength is nothing but the [[w:Compton wavelength |Compton wavelength]] in the Compton effect with correction for the Lorentz factor. In the described picture the appearance of a de Broglie wave and the wave-particle duality are interpreted as a purely relativistic effect, arising as a consequence of the Lorentz transformation of the standing wave moving with the particle. Moreover, since the de Broglie wavelength behaves like the photon wavelength with the corresponding momentum, which unites particles and waves, de Broglie wavelengths are considered probability waves associated with the wave function. In quantum mechanics, it is assumed that the squared amplitude of the wave function at a given point in the coordinate representation determines the probability density of finding the particle at this point. The electromagnetic potential of particles decreases in inverse proportion of the distance from the particle to the observation point, the potential of strong interaction in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]] behaves the same way. When internal oscillations start in the particle, the field potential around the particle starts oscillating too, and consequently, the amplitude of the de Broglie wavelength is growing rapidly while approaching the particle. This corresponds precisely to the fact that the particle most likely is at the place, where the amplitude of its wave function is the greatest. This is true for a pure state, for example, for a single particle. But in a mixed state, when the wave functions of several interacting particles are taken into consideration, the interpretation that connects the wave functions and probabilities becomes less accurate. In this case, the wave function would more likely reflect the total amplitude of the combined de Broglie wave, associated with the total amplitude of the combined wave field of the particles’ potentials. Lorentz transformations to determine the de Broglie wavelength were used also in the article. <ref> Masanori Sato and Hiroki Sato. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/category/27-issue-2-june-2012.html Interpretation of De Broglie Waves: At What Time Does a Massive Particle Obtain the Properties of a Wave?] Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 150-156. </ref> Derivation of the de Broglie phase wave through the standing (Doppler shifted) electromagnetic waves inside the particles is described in the article <ref> J. X. Zheng-Johansson and Per-Ivar Johansson. [http://www.ptep-online.com/2006/PP-07-07.PDF Developing de Broglie Wave]. Progress in physics. 2006, Vol. 4, P.32-35. </ref>. In addition, in the article <ref> Malik Mohammad Asif. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/153-18-pdf-malik-mohammad-asif-de-broglie-wave-and-electromagnetic-travelling-wave-model-of-electron-and-other-charged-particles.html de Broglie wave and electromagnetic traveling wave model of electron and other charged particles]. Physics Essays. 2014, Vol. 27, P. 146-164. </ref> is assumed that inside a particle there is a rotary electromagnetic wave. According to the conclusion in the article, <ref> J. Domínguez-Montes and E. L. Eisman, [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/165-10-pdf-j-dominguez-montes-and-e-l-eisman-representative-model-of-particle-wave-duality-and-entanglement-based-on-de-broglie-s-interpretation.html Representative model of particle-wave duality and entanglement based on De Broglie's interpretation]. Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 215-220. </ref> outside the moving particle should be the De Broglie wave with amplitude modulation. === Electrons in atoms === The motion of electrons in atoms occurs by means of rotation around the atomic nuclei. In the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial electron model |substantial model]] the electrons have the form of disk-shaped clouds. This is the result of the action of four approximately equal by magnitude forces, which arise from: 1) attraction of the electron to the nucleus due to [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] and Coulomb attraction of the charges of electron and nucleus, 2) repulsion of the charged electron matter from itself, and 3) runaway of the electron matter from the nucleus due to rotation, which is described by the centripetal force. In the hydrogen atom the electron in the state with the minimum energy can be modeled by a rotating disk, the inner edge of which has the radius <math>~ \frac {1}{2} r_B </math> and the outer edge has the radius <math>~ \frac {3}{2} r_B </math>, where <math>~ r_B </math> is the Bohr radius. <ref name=fed5/> If we assume that the electron’s orbit in the atom includes <math>~ n </math> of de Broglie wavelengths, then in case of a circular orbit with the radius <math>~ r </math>, for the circle perimeter and the angular momentum of the electron <math>~ L </math> we will obtain the following: :<math>~ 2 \pi r = n \lambda_B, \qquad L= r p= \frac { n h }{2 \pi }, \qquad \lambda_B = \frac {h}{p}.\qquad (3) </math> This corresponds to the postulate of the [[w:Bohr model |Bohr model]], according to which the angular momentum of the hydrogen atom is quantized and proportional to the number of the orbit <math>~ n </math> and the Planck constant. However, the excitation energy in the matter of electrons in atoms on the stationary orbits normally does not equal the rest energy of the electrons as such, and therefore the spatial quantization of the de Broglie wave along the orbit in the form (3) should be explained in some other way. In particular, it was shown that on the stationary orbits in the electron matter distributed over the space the equality holds of the kinetic matter energy flux and the sum of energy fluxes from the electromagnetic field and field of the strong gravitation. <ref name=fed5/> In this case the field energy fluxes do not slow down or rotate the electron matter. This causes the equilibrium circular and elliptical orbits of the electron in the atom. It turns out that the angular momenta are quantized proportionally to the Planck constant, which leads in the first approximation to relation (3). Besides, in transitions from one orbit to another, which is closer to the nucleus, the electrons emit photons, which carry the energy <math>~ \Delta W</math> and the angular momentum <math>~ \Delta L </math> away from the atom. For a photon the wave-particle duality is reduced to the direct relation between these quantities, and their ratio <math>~\Delta W / \Delta L </math> is equal to the average angular frequency of the photon wave and at the same time to the average angular velocity of the electron <math>~ \omega</math>, which under corresponding conditions emits the photon in the atom during its rotation. If we assume that for each photon <math>~ \Delta L =\frac { h }{2 \pi }= \hbar</math>, where <math>~ \hbar</math> is the [[w:Planck constant|Planck constant]], then for the photon energy we obtain: <math>~ W = \hbar \omega </math>. In this case, during the atomic transitions the electron’s angular momentum also changes with <math>~ \Delta L =\hbar </math>, and the formula (3) should hold for the angular momentum quantization in the hydrogen atom. In the electron’s transition from one stationary state to another, the annular flux of the kinetic energy and the internal field fluxes change inside its matter, as well as their momenta and energies. At the same time, the electron energy in the nuclear field changes, the photon energy is emitted, the electron momentum increases and the de Broglie wavelength decreases in (3). Thus, emission of the photon as the electromagnetic field quantum from the atom is accompanied by changing of the field energy fluxes in the electron matter, both processes are associated with the field energies and with the change of the electron’s angular momentum, which is proportional to <math>~ \hbar </math>. From (3) it seems that on the electron orbit <math>~ n </math> de Broglie wavelengths can be located. But at the same time the electron’s excitation energy does not reach its rest energy, as it is required to describe the de Broglie wavelength in the forward motion of the particles. Instead, we obtain the relationship between the angular momentum and energy fluxes in the electron matter in stationary states and the change of these angular momenta and fluxes during emission of photons. == References == <references/> == External links == * [http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/%D0%94%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8F De Broglie wavelength in Russian] * [http://engineeringunits.com/de-broglie-wavelength-calculator/ de broglie wavelength calculator] {{ Quantum mechanics }} [[Category:Atomic physics]] [[Category:Quantum mechanics]] [[Category:Waves]] lzcm7kvv9fskcu0cbr3d0s54yp3vxpy 2823632 2823629 2026-08-20T11:40:01Z ~2026-45608-89 3108650 major flaws 2823632 wikitext text/x-wiki {{physics}} {{unmaintained}} According to [[w:wave-particle duality |wave-particle duality]], the Δβ '''wavelength''' is a wavelength manifested in all the objects in quantum mechanics which determines the probability density of finding the object at a given point of the [[wikipedia:Configuration_space_(physics)|configuration space]]. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum. Definition In 1925 a German physicist [[w:Louis de Broglie |Louis de Broglie]] assumed that for particles the same relations are valid as for the photon: <ref>L. de Broglie, ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'' (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, ''Ann. Phys.'' (Paris) '''3''', 22 (1925).</ref> :<math>~ E= h \mu , \qquad </math> <math>~c= \lambda \mu , \qquad </math> <math>~ E= \frac {hc} {\lambda} = pc, \qquad </math> where <math>~ E</math> and <math>~ p</math> are the energy and momentum of the photon, <math>~ \nu </math> and <math>~ \lambda </math> are the [[frequency]] and wavelength of the photon, <math>~ h </math> is the [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]], <math>~ c </math> is the speed of light. From this we obtain the definition of the de Broglie wavelength through the Planck constant and the relativistic momentum of the particle: :<math>~\lambda_B = \frac {h} {p}. \qquad \qquad (1) </math> Unlike photons, which always move at the same velocity, which is equal to the speed of light, the momenta of the particles according to the [[special relativity]] depend on the mass <math>~ m </math> and velocity <math>~ v </math> by the formula: :<math>~ p = \frac {mv} {\sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} }. </math> A simplified equation for the de Broglie wavelength, accurate for speeds much less than ''c'', is so: :<math>~ \lambda = \frac {h} {mp}. </math> == Derivation of the formula for the de Broglie wavelength == There are several explanations for the fact that in experiments with particles de Broglie wavelength is manifested. However, not all these explanations can be represented in mathematical form, or they do not provide a physical mechanism, justifying formula (1). === Waves inside you === When particles are excited by other particles in the course of the experiment or during the collision of particles with measuring instruments, internal standing waves can occur in the particles. They can be electromagnetic waves or waves associated with the strong interaction of particles, with [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]], etc. With the help of Lorentz transformations, we can translate the wavelength of these internal oscillations into the wavelength detected by an external observer, conducting the experiment with moving particles. The calculation provides the formula for the de Broglie wavelength, <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/wGPU Fizika i filosofiia podobiia ot preonov do metagalaktik], Perm, pages 544, 1999. {{ISBN|5-8131-0012-1}}. </ref> <ref name=fed5> [[User:Fedosin | Sergey Fedosin]], [https://www.morebooks.de/store/gb/book/the-physical-theories-and-infinite-hierarchical-nesting-of-matter-volume-1/isbn/978-3-659-57301-9 The physical theories and infinite hierarchical nesting of matter], Volume 1, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, pages: 580, {{ISBN|978-3-659-57301-9}}.</ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0006 The radius of the proton in the self-consistent model]. Hadronic Journal, 2012, Vol. 35, No. 4, P. 349 – 363.</ref> as well as the propagation speed of the de Broglie wavelength: :<math>~ c_B = \frac { \lambda_B} {T_B }= \frac {c^2}{v}, </math> where <math>~ T_B </math> is the period of oscillation of the de Broglie wavelength. Thus, we determine the main features associated with the wave-particle duality – if the energy of internal standing waves in the particles reaches the rest energy of these particles, then the de Broglie wavelength is calculated in the same way as the wavelength of photons at a corresponding momentum. If the energy <math>~ E_e </math> of excited particles is less than the rest energy <math>~ mc^2 </math>, then the wavelength is given by the formula: :<math>~\lambda_2 = \frac {h c^2 \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e v}= \frac {h} {p_ e } \geqslant \lambda_B, \qquad \qquad (2) </math> where <math>~ p_ e </math> is the momentum of the mass-energy, which is associated with the internal standing waves and moves with the particle at velocity <math>~ v </math>. It is obvious that in the experiments the de Broglie wavelength (1) is mainly manifested as the boundary and the lowest value for the wavelength (2). At the same time, experiments with a set of particles cannot give an unambiguous value of the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> according to formula (2) – if excitation energies of the particles are not controlled and vary for different particles, the range of values will be too large. The higher the energies of interactions and of particles’ excitation are, the closer they will be to the rest energy, and the closer the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> will be to the <math>~\lambda_ B </math>. Light particles, like electrons, achieve more rapidly the velocity of the order of the speed of light, become relativistic and at low energies demonstrate quantum and wave properties. Besides the de Broglie wavelength, Lorentz transformations give another wavelength and its period: :<math>~\lambda_1 = \frac {h c \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e }= \frac {h v } { c p_ e }= \frac {\lambda_2 v}{c} = \lambda' \ {1-v^2/c^2}^2,\operatorname{d}\!t</math> :<math>~ T_1 = \frac {\lambda_1} {v}.</math> This wavelength is subject to Lorentz contraction as compared to the wavelength <math>~\lambda' </math> in the reference frame associated with the particle. In addition, this wave has a propagation speed equal to the velocity of the particle. In the limiting case, when the excitation energy of the particle is equal to the rest energy, <math>~ E_e = mc^2 </math>, for the wavelength we have the following: :<math>~\lambda_{1f} = \frac {h \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } { mc }.</math> The obtained wavelength is nothing but the [[w:Compton wavelength |Compton wavelength]] in the Compton effect with correction for the Lorentz factor. In the described picture the appearance of a de Broglie wave and the wave-particle duality are interpreted as a purely relativistic effect, arising as a consequence of the Lorentz transformation of the standing wave moving with the particle. Moreover, since the de Broglie wavelength behaves like the photon wavelength with the corresponding momentum, which unites particles and waves, de Broglie wavelengths are considered probability waves associated with the wave function. In quantum mechanics, it is assumed that the squared amplitude of the wave function at a given point in the coordinate representation determines the probability density of finding the particle at this point. The electromagnetic potential of particles decreases in inverse proportion of the distance from the particle to the observation point, the potential of strong interaction in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]] behaves the same way. When internal oscillations start in the particle, the field potential around the particle starts oscillating too, and consequently, the amplitude of the de Broglie wavelength is growing rapidly while approaching the particle. This corresponds precisely to the fact that the particle most likely is at the place, where the amplitude of its wave function is the greatest. This is true for a pure state, for example, for a single particle. But in a mixed state, when the wave functions of several interacting particles are taken into consideration, the interpretation that connects the wave functions and probabilities becomes less accurate. In this case, the wave function would more likely reflect the total amplitude of the combined de Broglie wave, associated with the total amplitude of the combined wave field of the particles’ potentials. Lorentz transformations to determine the de Broglie wavelength were used also in the article. <ref> Masanori Sato and Hiroki Sato. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/category/27-issue-2-june-2012.html Interpretation of De Broglie Waves: At What Time Does a Massive Particle Obtain the Properties of a Wave?] Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 150-156. </ref> Derivation of the de Broglie phase wave through the standing (Doppler shifted) electromagnetic waves inside the particles is described in the article <ref> J. X. Zheng-Johansson and Per-Ivar Johansson. [http://www.ptep-online.com/2006/PP-07-07.PDF Developing de Broglie Wave]. Progress in physics. 2006, Vol. 4, P.32-35. </ref>. In addition, in the article <ref> Malik Mohammad Asif. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/153-18-pdf-malik-mohammad-asif-de-broglie-wave-and-electromagnetic-travelling-wave-model-of-electron-and-other-charged-particles.html de Broglie wave and electromagnetic traveling wave model of electron and other charged particles]. Physics Essays. 2014, Vol. 27, P. 146-164. </ref> is assumed that inside a particle there is a rotary electromagnetic wave. According to the conclusion in the article, <ref> J. Domínguez-Montes and E. L. Eisman, [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/165-10-pdf-j-dominguez-montes-and-e-l-eisman-representative-model-of-particle-wave-duality-and-entanglement-based-on-de-broglie-s-interpretation.html Representative model of particle-wave duality and entanglement based on De Broglie's interpretation]. Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 215-220. </ref> outside the moving particle should be the De Broglie wave with amplitude modulation. === Electrons in you === The motion of electrons in atoms occurs by means of rotation around the atomic nuclei. In the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial electron model |substantial model]] the electrons have the form of disk-shaped clouds. This is the result of the action of four approximately equal by magnitude forces, which arise from: 1) attraction of the electron to the nucleus due to [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] and Coulomb attraction of the charges of electron and nucleus, 2) repulsion of the charged electron matter from itself, and 3) runaway of the electron matter from the nucleus due to rotation, which is described by the centripetal force. In the hydrogen atom the electron in the state with the minimum energy can be modeled by a rotating disk, the inner edge of which has the radius <math>~ \frac {1}{2} r_B </math> and the outer edge has the radius <math>~ \frac {3}{2} r_B </math>, where <math>~ r_B </math> is the Bohr radius. <ref name=fed5/> If we assume that the electron’s orbit in the atom includes <math>~ n </math> of de Broglie wavelengths, then in case of a circular orbit with the radius <math>~ r </math>, for the circle perimeter and the angular momentum of the electron <math>~ L </math> we will obtain the following: :<math>~ 2 \pi r = n \lambda_B, \qquad L= r p= \frac { n h }{2 \pi }, \qquad \lambda_B = \frac {h}{p}.\qquad (3) </math> This corresponds to the postulate of the [[w:Bohr model |Bohr model]], according to which the angular momentum of the hydrogen atom is quantized and proportional to the number of the orbit <math>~ n </math> and the Planck constant. However, the excitation energy in the matter of electrons in atoms on the stationary orbits normally does not equal the rest energy of the electrons as such, and therefore the spatial quantization of the de Broglie wave along the orbit in the form (3) should be explained in some other way. In particular, it was shown that on the stationary orbits in the electron matter distributed over the space the equality holds of the kinetic matter energy flux and the sum of energy fluxes from the electromagnetic field and field of the strong gravitation. <ref name=fed5/> In this case the field energy fluxes do not slow down or rotate the electron matter. This causes the equilibrium circular and elliptical orbits of the electron in the atom. It turns out that the angular momenta are quantized proportionally to the Planck constant, which leads in the first approximation to relation (3). Besides, in transitions from one orbit to another, which is closer to the nucleus, the electrons emit photons, which carry the energy <math>~ \Delta W</math> and the angular momentum <math>~ \Delta L </math> away from the atom. For a photon the wave-particle duality is reduced to the direct relation between these quantities, and their ratio <math>~\Delta W / \Delta L </math> is equal to the average angular frequency of the photon wave and at the same time to the average angular velocity of the electron <math>~ \omega</math>, which under corresponding conditions emits the photon in the atom during its rotation. If we assume that for each photon <math>~ \Delta L =\frac { h }{2 \pi }= \hbar</math>, where <math>~ \hbar</math> is the [[wikipedia:Planck|Planck]] , then for the photon energy we obtain: <math>~ W = \hbar \omega </math>. In this case, during the atomic transitions the electron’s angular momentum also changes with <math>~ \Delta L =\hbar </math>, and the formula (3) should hold for the angular momentum quantization in the hydrogen atom. In the electron’s transition from one stationary state to another, the annular flux of the kinetic energy and the internal field fluxes change inside its matter, as well as their momenta and energies. At the same time, the electron energy in the nuclear field changes, the photon energy is emitted, the electron momentum increases and the de Broglie wavelength decreases in (3). Thus, emission of the photon as the electromagnetic field quantum from the atom is accompanied by changing of the field energy fluxes in the electron matter, both processes are associated with the field energies and with the change of the electron’s angular momentum, which is proportional to <math>~ \hbar </math>. From (3) it seems that on the electron orbit <math>~ n </math> de Broglie wavelengths can be located. But at the same time the electron’s excitation energy does not reach its rest energy, as it is required to describe the de Broglie wavelength in the forward motion of the particles. Instead, we obtain the relationship between the angular momentum and energy fluxes in the electron matter in stationary states and the change of these angular momenta and fluxes during emission of photons. == References == <references/> == External links == * [http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/%D0%94%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8F De Broglie wavelength in Russian] * [http://engineeringunits.com/de-broglie-wavelength-calculator/ de broglie wavelength calculator] {{ Quantum mechanics }} [[Category:Atomic physics]] [[Category:Quantum mechanics]] [[Category:Waves]] iqemwyp8vwqe84ttsl52c5ygl8bhqyr 2823633 2823632 2026-08-20T11:41:28Z NDG 3006541 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-45608-89|~2026-45608-89]] ([[User_talk:~2026-45608-89|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2811101 wikitext text/x-wiki {{physics}} {{unmaintained}} According to [[w:wave-particle duality |wave-particle duality]], the '''De Broglie wavelength''' is a wavelength manifested in all the objects in quantum mechanics which determines the probability density of finding the object at a given point of the [[wikipedia:Configuration_space_(physics)|configuration space]]. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum. == Definition == In 1924 a French physicist [[w:Louis de Broglie |Louis de Broglie]] assumed that for particles the same relations are valid as for the photon: <ref>L. de Broglie, ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta'' (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, ''Ann. Phys.'' (Paris) '''3''', 22 (1925).</ref> :<math>~ E= h \nu , \qquad </math> <math>~c= \lambda \nu , \qquad </math> <math>~ E= \frac {hc} {\lambda} = pc, \qquad </math> where <math>~ E</math> and <math>~ p</math> are the energy and momentum of the photon, <math>~ \nu </math> and <math>~ \lambda </math> are the [[frequency]] and wavelength of the photon, <math>~ h </math> is the [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]], <math>~ c </math> is the speed of light. From this we obtain the definition of the de Broglie wavelength through the Planck constant and the relativistic momentum of the particle: :<math>~\lambda_B = \frac {h} {p}. \qquad \qquad (1) </math> Unlike photons, which always move at the same velocity, which is equal to the speed of light, the momenta of the particles according to the [[special relativity]] depend on the mass <math>~ m </math> and velocity <math>~ v </math> by the formula: :<math>~ p = \frac {mv} {\sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} }. </math> A simplified equation for the de Broglie wavelength, accurate for speeds much less than ''c'', is so: :<math>~ \lambda = \frac {h} {mv}. </math> == Derivation of the formula for the de Broglie wavelength == There are several explanations for the fact that in experiments with particles de Broglie wavelength is manifested. However, not all these explanations can be represented in mathematical form, or they do not provide a physical mechanism, justifying formula (1). === Waves inside the particles === When particles are excited by other particles in the course of the experiment or during the collision of particles with measuring instruments, internal standing waves can occur in the particles. They can be electromagnetic waves or waves associated with the strong interaction of particles, with [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]], etc. With the help of Lorentz transformations, we can translate the wavelength of these internal oscillations into the wavelength detected by an external observer, conducting the experiment with moving particles. The calculation provides the formula for the de Broglie wavelength, <ref> Fedosin S.G. [https://payhip.com/b/wGPU Fizika i filosofiia podobiia ot preonov do metagalaktik], Perm, pages 544, 1999. {{ISBN|5-8131-0012-1}}. </ref> <ref name=fed5> [[User:Fedosin | Sergey Fedosin]], [https://www.morebooks.de/store/gb/book/the-physical-theories-and-infinite-hierarchical-nesting-of-matter-volume-1/isbn/978-3-659-57301-9 The physical theories and infinite hierarchical nesting of matter], Volume 1, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, pages: 580, {{ISBN|978-3-659-57301-9}}.</ref> <ref> Fedosin S.G. [http://vixra.org/abs/1208.0006 The radius of the proton in the self-consistent model]. Hadronic Journal, 2012, Vol. 35, No. 4, P. 349 – 363.</ref> as well as the propagation speed of the de Broglie wavelength: :<math>~ c_B = \frac { \lambda_B} {T_B }= \frac {c^2}{v}, </math> where <math>~ T_B </math> is the period of oscillation of the de Broglie wavelength. Thus, we determine the main features associated with the wave-particle duality – if the energy of internal standing waves in the particles reaches the rest energy of these particles, then the de Broglie wavelength is calculated in the same way as the wavelength of photons at a corresponding momentum. If the energy <math>~ E_e </math> of excited particles is less than the rest energy <math>~ mc^2 </math>, then the wavelength is given by the formula: :<math>~\lambda_2 = \frac {h c^2 \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e v}= \frac {h} {p_ e } \geqslant \lambda_B, \qquad \qquad (2) </math> where <math>~ p_ e </math> is the momentum of the mass-energy, which is associated with the internal standing waves and moves with the particle at velocity <math>~ v </math>. It is obvious that in the experiments the de Broglie wavelength (1) is mainly manifested as the boundary and the lowest value for the wavelength (2). At the same time, experiments with a set of particles cannot give an unambiguous value of the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> according to formula (2) – if excitation energies of the particles are not controlled and vary for different particles, the range of values will be too large. The higher the energies of interactions and of particles’ excitation are, the closer they will be to the rest energy, and the closer the wavelength <math>~\lambda_2 </math> will be to the <math>~\lambda_ B </math>. Light particles, like electrons, achieve more rapidly the velocity of the order of the speed of light, become relativistic and at low energies demonstrate quantum and wave properties. Besides the de Broglie wavelength, Lorentz transformations give another wavelength and its period: :<math>~\lambda_1 = \frac {h c \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } {E_e }= \frac {h v } { c p_ e }= \frac {\lambda_2 v}{c} = \lambda' \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2},</math> :<math>~ T_1 = \frac {\lambda_1} {v}.</math> This wavelength is subject to Lorentz contraction as compared to the wavelength <math>~\lambda' </math> in the reference frame associated with the particle. In addition, this wave has a propagation speed equal to the velocity of the particle. In the limiting case, when the excitation energy of the particle is equal to the rest energy, <math>~ E_e = mc^2 </math>, for the wavelength we have the following: :<math>~\lambda_{1f} = \frac {h \sqrt {1-v^2/c^2} } { mc }.</math> The obtained wavelength is nothing but the [[w:Compton wavelength |Compton wavelength]] in the Compton effect with correction for the Lorentz factor. In the described picture the appearance of a de Broglie wave and the wave-particle duality are interpreted as a purely relativistic effect, arising as a consequence of the Lorentz transformation of the standing wave moving with the particle. Moreover, since the de Broglie wavelength behaves like the photon wavelength with the corresponding momentum, which unites particles and waves, de Broglie wavelengths are considered probability waves associated with the wave function. In quantum mechanics, it is assumed that the squared amplitude of the wave function at a given point in the coordinate representation determines the probability density of finding the particle at this point. The electromagnetic potential of particles decreases in inverse proportion of the distance from the particle to the observation point, the potential of strong interaction in the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Gravitational model of strong interaction |gravitational model of strong interaction]] behaves the same way. When internal oscillations start in the particle, the field potential around the particle starts oscillating too, and consequently, the amplitude of the de Broglie wavelength is growing rapidly while approaching the particle. This corresponds precisely to the fact that the particle most likely is at the place, where the amplitude of its wave function is the greatest. This is true for a pure state, for example, for a single particle. But in a mixed state, when the wave functions of several interacting particles are taken into consideration, the interpretation that connects the wave functions and probabilities becomes less accurate. In this case, the wave function would more likely reflect the total amplitude of the combined de Broglie wave, associated with the total amplitude of the combined wave field of the particles’ potentials. Lorentz transformations to determine the de Broglie wavelength were used also in the article. <ref> Masanori Sato and Hiroki Sato. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/category/27-issue-2-june-2012.html Interpretation of De Broglie Waves: At What Time Does a Massive Particle Obtain the Properties of a Wave?] Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 150-156. </ref> Derivation of the de Broglie phase wave through the standing (Doppler shifted) electromagnetic waves inside the particles is described in the article <ref> J. X. Zheng-Johansson and Per-Ivar Johansson. [http://www.ptep-online.com/2006/PP-07-07.PDF Developing de Broglie Wave]. Progress in physics. 2006, Vol. 4, P.32-35. </ref>. In addition, in the article <ref> Malik Mohammad Asif. [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/153-18-pdf-malik-mohammad-asif-de-broglie-wave-and-electromagnetic-travelling-wave-model-of-electron-and-other-charged-particles.html de Broglie wave and electromagnetic traveling wave model of electron and other charged particles]. Physics Essays. 2014, Vol. 27, P. 146-164. </ref> is assumed that inside a particle there is a rotary electromagnetic wave. According to the conclusion in the article, <ref> J. Domínguez-Montes and E. L. Eisman, [http://physicsessays.org/browse-journal-2/product/165-10-pdf-j-dominguez-montes-and-e-l-eisman-representative-model-of-particle-wave-duality-and-entanglement-based-on-de-broglie-s-interpretation.html Representative model of particle-wave duality and entanglement based on De Broglie's interpretation]. Physics Essays. 2012, Vol. 25, P. 215-220. </ref> outside the moving particle should be the De Broglie wave with amplitude modulation. === Electrons in atoms === The motion of electrons in atoms occurs by means of rotation around the atomic nuclei. In the [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Substantial electron model |substantial model]] the electrons have the form of disk-shaped clouds. This is the result of the action of four approximately equal by magnitude forces, which arise from: 1) attraction of the electron to the nucleus due to [[Physics/Essays/Fedosin/Strong gravitation |strong gravitation]] and Coulomb attraction of the charges of electron and nucleus, 2) repulsion of the charged electron matter from itself, and 3) runaway of the electron matter from the nucleus due to rotation, which is described by the centripetal force. In the hydrogen atom the electron in the state with the minimum energy can be modeled by a rotating disk, the inner edge of which has the radius <math>~ \frac {1}{2} r_B </math> and the outer edge has the radius <math>~ \frac {3}{2} r_B </math>, where <math>~ r_B </math> is the Bohr radius. <ref name=fed5/> If we assume that the electron’s orbit in the atom includes <math>~ n </math> of de Broglie wavelengths, then in case of a circular orbit with the radius <math>~ r </math>, for the circle perimeter and the angular momentum of the electron <math>~ L </math> we will obtain the following: :<math>~ 2 \pi r = n \lambda_B, \qquad L= r p= \frac { n h }{2 \pi }, \qquad \lambda_B = \frac {h}{p}.\qquad (3) </math> This corresponds to the postulate of the [[w:Bohr model |Bohr model]], according to which the angular momentum of the hydrogen atom is quantized and proportional to the number of the orbit <math>~ n </math> and the Planck constant. However, the excitation energy in the matter of electrons in atoms on the stationary orbits normally does not equal the rest energy of the electrons as such, and therefore the spatial quantization of the de Broglie wave along the orbit in the form (3) should be explained in some other way. In particular, it was shown that on the stationary orbits in the electron matter distributed over the space the equality holds of the kinetic matter energy flux and the sum of energy fluxes from the electromagnetic field and field of the strong gravitation. <ref name=fed5/> In this case the field energy fluxes do not slow down or rotate the electron matter. This causes the equilibrium circular and elliptical orbits of the electron in the atom. It turns out that the angular momenta are quantized proportionally to the Planck constant, which leads in the first approximation to relation (3). Besides, in transitions from one orbit to another, which is closer to the nucleus, the electrons emit photons, which carry the energy <math>~ \Delta W</math> and the angular momentum <math>~ \Delta L </math> away from the atom. For a photon the wave-particle duality is reduced to the direct relation between these quantities, and their ratio <math>~\Delta W / \Delta L </math> is equal to the average angular frequency of the photon wave and at the same time to the average angular velocity of the electron <math>~ \omega</math>, which under corresponding conditions emits the photon in the atom during its rotation. If we assume that for each photon <math>~ \Delta L =\frac { h }{2 \pi }= \hbar</math>, where <math>~ \hbar</math> is the [[w:Planck constant|Planck constant]], then for the photon energy we obtain: <math>~ W = \hbar \omega </math>. In this case, during the atomic transitions the electron’s angular momentum also changes with <math>~ \Delta L =\hbar </math>, and the formula (3) should hold for the angular momentum quantization in the hydrogen atom. In the electron’s transition from one stationary state to another, the annular flux of the kinetic energy and the internal field fluxes change inside its matter, as well as their momenta and energies. At the same time, the electron energy in the nuclear field changes, the photon energy is emitted, the electron momentum increases and the de Broglie wavelength decreases in (3). Thus, emission of the photon as the electromagnetic field quantum from the atom is accompanied by changing of the field energy fluxes in the electron matter, both processes are associated with the field energies and with the change of the electron’s angular momentum, which is proportional to <math>~ \hbar </math>. From (3) it seems that on the electron orbit <math>~ n </math> de Broglie wavelengths can be located. But at the same time the electron’s excitation energy does not reach its rest energy, as it is required to describe the de Broglie wavelength in the forward motion of the particles. Instead, we obtain the relationship between the angular momentum and energy fluxes in the electron matter in stationary states and the change of these angular momenta and fluxes during emission of photons. == References == <references/> == External links == * [http://www.wikiznanie.ru/ru-wz/index.php/%D0%94%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%8F De Broglie wavelength in Russian] * [http://engineeringunits.com/de-broglie-wavelength-calculator/ de broglie wavelength calculator] {{ Quantum mechanics }} [[Category:Atomic physics]] [[Category:Quantum mechanics]] [[Category:Waves]] bgrgrsow6iuvxu57zuu5gt5dj576qcu 0 171005 2823150 2822551 2026-08-19T14:18:22Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ 2823150 wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260818.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] hbgokeexd3amt2p34afjz2p9u9krx2c 0 203942 2823175 2821613 2026-08-19T17:08:17Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2823175 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260817.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] 3bj8yj0uvycihjkazarpsusl6snfpb1 2823177 2823175 2026-08-19T17:09:31Z Young1lim 21186 /* Lambda Calculus */ 2823177 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Types== * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) * Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) * Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) ==Functions== * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) ==Expressions== * Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) * Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Lambda Calculus== * Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]]) * Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]]) * Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]]) * Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]]) * Encoding Datatypes :- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]]) :- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]]) :- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]]) :- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]]) :- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260818.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]] 9lars5wp6ebn2l2kms7b7i4v4fdsugt 0 210238 2823571 1596781 2026-08-20T07:04:22Z CommonsDelinker 9184 Removing [[:c:File:Clipart-red-toolbox-512x512-6372.png|Clipart-red-toolbox-512x512-6372.png]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:Herbythyme|Herbythyme]] because: Copyright violation, see [[:c:Commons:Licensing|]]. 2823571 wikitext text/x-wiki {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 width=100% |[[Instructional design/BADL| Welcome to BDAL]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Introduction to BDAL| Introduction to BDAL]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Business Challenges| Challenges]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Organizational Culture| Organizational Culture]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/BDAL Participants| BDAL Participants]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Design Situation Analysis| Design Situation Analysis]] |} == '''Designing Business Driven Action Learning''' == '''Welcome to the lesson for Designing Business Driven Action Learning!''' This lesson is prepared for instructional designers in organizational settings who want to add the Business Driven Action Learning (BDAL) instructional approach to their instruction design toolbox. {| class="wikitable" Width=100% | * Anchored instruction * Authentic learning environments | * '''Business Driven Action Learning''' | * Cognitive apprenticeship * Case based learning     |- | * Direct instruction * Discovery based learning * Drill and practice     | style="text-align: left;" | | * Expository teaching * Hands-on learning |- | * Individualized instruction * Inquiry-based instruction | * Instructional game * Instructional simulation * Learner-centered instruction | * Problem-based learning/instruction * Project-based learning/instruction     |} == Learning Objectives == ===Lesson Goal=== The following goal describes the desired behavior of learners several months after completing this lesson: Instructional designers will choose to use Business Driven Action Learning methods when the appropriate conditions are present in the organizations they are working for.  The result will be appropriate implementation of the BDAL model for the learning project. ===Key Learning Objectives=== At the completion of this Wikiversity module, learners will meet the '''following performance objectives:''' Given a description of a design situation, the learner will analyze the situation in terms of its applicability of the BDAL method by comparing their answer to an expert response. Learner must agree with at least 3 of the 4 criterion for the appropriate decision. * Given a list of 7 business challenges, learner will correctly identify 4 challenges that are most applicable to BDAL. * Given descriptions of 3 organizational cultures, the learner will correctly identify which one is most conducive for BDAL. * Given a set of 5 potential candidates for a BDAL action set, learners will correctly identify which 3 are the best for BDAL. Now, you can go to the introduction to BDAL page [[Instructional design/BADL/Introduction to BDAL|Introduction to BDAL]] {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 width=100% |[[Instructional design/BADL| Welcome to BDAL]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Introduction to BDAL| Introduction to BDAL]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Business Challenges| Challenges]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Organizational Culture| Organizational Culture]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/BDAL Participants| BDAL Participants]] |[[Instructional design/BADL/Design Situation Analysis| Design Situation Analysis]] |} {{CourseCat}} jen93yoqi9et64hxpupprcw0iymy08u 0 223246 2823108 2822783 2026-08-19T12:29:17Z MathXplore 2888076 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Knowyourgem|Knowyourgem]] ([[User_talk:Knowyourgem|talk]]) to last version by [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2535153 wikitext text/x-wiki =Alexandrite= Alexandrite is one of the rarest and most valuable gemstones. It was discovered by chance during a search for emeralds near [[Wikipedia:Yekaterinburg|Yekaterinburg]] in 1833, on the day of [[Wikipedia:Alexander II of Russia|Alexander the Second's]] birthday anniversary (hence the name).<ref>''Minerały i kamienie szlachetne'' by RBA Collecionables, S.A., {{ISBN|978-83-7813-150-2}}, 2012.</ref> It is a very valuable variety of [[Wikipedia:chrysoberyl|chrysoberyl]], which ranks as the third-hardest gemstone, right after [[Editing Internet Texts/Gemstones/Diamond|diamond]] and [[Wikipedia:corundum|corundum]]. Alexandrite changes its color depending upon the nature of ambient lighting. It is emerald-colored or grass-green in daylight and purple-reddish in artifical light. Its color varies also from red to orange-yellowish depending on the angle from which it is looked at. [[File:Alexandrite 26.75ctsCropped.jpg|thumb|right|Alexandrite]] =Basic properties= {| class="wikitable" |- | '''Composition''' || Al₂BeO₄ |- | '''Class'''|| Oxydes and hydroxydes |- | '''Crystal system''' || Rhombic |- | '''Mohs' hardness'''|| 8,5 |- | '''Fracture''' || Conchoidal |- | '''Cleavage'''|| Imperfect |- | '''Lustre'''|| Glassy |- | '''Streak'''|| White |- | '''Localities''' || Tanzania, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Republic of South Africa, India, Zimbabwe, Tasmania |} =References= {{Reflist}} {{CourseCat}} [[Category:Gemstones|Alexandrite]] ltzwho3hyww5npy26hh9gcx16bdzo86 0 263495 2823127 2616068 2026-08-19T13:16:57Z ~2026-45329-14 3108422 /* Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball */ -+Portrait of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, seated (1500–1558), formerly attributed to Titian (Alte Pinakothek, Munich).jpg 2823127 wikitext text/x-wiki == Also Known As == *Family name: Cavendish *The Duke of Devonshire (21 December 1891<ref name=":1" /> –1908) *The Marquis of Hartington (1858–1891) **Harty Tarty (while he was Lord Hartington) *Lord Cavendish of Keighley (1834–1858) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Sexual Partners === *Catherine Walters, "Skittles" (to c. 1862)<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|date=2022-04-07|title=Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spencer_Cavendish,_8th_Duke_of_Devonshire&oldid=1081400590|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Cavendish,_8th_Duke_of_Devonshire.</ref> *[[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa Cavendish]], mistress (1862–1892), wife (16 August 1892 –24 March 1908)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-04-16|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&oldid=1082952061|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire.</ref> === Friends === * [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] === Employees === * [[Social Victorians/People/Paget Family|Almeric Fitzroy]], later Sir Almeric Fitzroy, private secretary, 1895<ref name=":7" />{{rp|242}} – == Timeline == [[File:Spencer-Compton-Cavendish-8th-Duke-of-Devonshire-as-The-Emperor-Charles-V.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a standing man in a historical costume|The Duke of Devonshire in costume as Charles V. © National Portrait Gallery, London.]] '''1862, Summer''', "Gossip about Lord Hartington [Spencer Compton Cavendish] and Skittles [Catherine Walters] was rife in the summer of 1862, and matters came to a head after ''The Times'' and the ''Daily Telegraph'' published some articles about it. Skittles was referred to as Anonyma, and although Lord Hartington's name was not actually mentioned, everybody knew full well who was the subject of the article, which '''were''' written in highly disapproving terms. Lord Hartington unwillingly agreed to take up the suggestion that he should go to America to gain first-hand knowledge of the Civil War, which was then raging, while poor Skittles packed her bags and set off to Europe."<ref name=":0">Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984.</ref>{{rp|26}} '''1862, end of, to the beginning of 1863 (about 6 months after he went to the U.S.)''', Spencer Compton Cavendish and Louisa Montagu began a sexual relationship.<ref name=":0" />{{rp|27}} '''1880s, early''',<blockquote>In the early 1880s, the income of the Duke of Devonshire was entirely derived from agricultural rentals, and from dividends in companies associated with his estates. There was also a debt of £2 million, the interest payments on which were taking some 60 per cent of his disposable income.<ref name=":7">Cannadine, David. ''The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy''. New York: Yale University Press, 1990.</ref>{{rp|135}}</blockquote> '''1891–1932''',<blockquote>Between 1891 and 1932, the eighth and ninth dukes mobilized £2.75 million by sales of land, of company shares, and of Devonshire House. They paid off most of the debt, and invested the remaining sum in equities, much of it in Canada. So, by the late 1920s, the ninth duke was enjoying a larger disposable income than his grandfather, the majority of which now '''dame''' from stock-exchange dividends.<ref name=":7" />{{rp|135}}</blockquote> '''1892''', David Cannadine says, "When the eighth Duke of Devonshire inherited in 1892, he found the family's financial position so desperate he thought of quitting public life / altogether."<ref name=":7" />{{rp|213–14}} '''1892 August 16''', Spencer Compton Cavendish (8th Duke) and Louisa Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu, the Duchess of Manchester, married in Christ Church, Mayfair.<ref name=":5">"Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire." {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p958.htm#i9576|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2022-05-15}} https://www.thepeerage.com/p958.htm#i9576.</ref> '''1894 May 7, Monday''', [[Social Victorians/People/Hamilton|Edward Walter Hamilton]], who was either Assistant Financial Secretary or "Assistant Secretary to the Treasury for financial business,"<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-10-04|title=Edward Walter Hamilton|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Walter_Hamilton&oldid=919596425|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Walter_Hamilton.</ref> wrote in his journal,<blockquote>The Duke of Devonshire came to see me this afternoon, nominally about the staff of his Labour Commission (which is at last winding up), but really about the effect of the Death duty proposals on his successor. He made out, or I presume his Solicitor had made out for him, that V. Cavendish would on succeeding have to pay £600,000 in Estate and Succession Duties, which (he said) must result in the shutting up of Chatsworth and the sale of Devonshire House, because from figures which he showed me the margin of free income, vast as are the estates in the aggregate, is comparatively not very great — not more than about £30,000 a year for living and entertaining. It is most awkward for me, as I told him, to express any opinion or take any action about a measure of this kind which is to be violently attacked by the Opposition. My own belief is that the value of the estates has been taken much too high; that is to say, Devonshire House, instead of being as heretofore estimated at the life interest of the successor on its rateable value — say £1200 or £1500* <* I find it is rated at £3000 a year [The angle brackets enclose an interpolated explanatory note.]> a year, is probably put at what it might fetch if put up for sale as building ground, very likely £250,000. I think this would be a monstrous exaction. What might be done — and I imagine it is all that the Inland Revenue (if left to themselves) would do — is to take the capital value instead of the life interest in the rateable value, and then say the question would be reopened, if the property were subsequently sold. But it seems to me to be doubtful policy to give the Department a statutory lead in this direction...<ref>Hamilton, Edward Walter, Sir. The Diary of Sir Edward Walter Hamilton, 1885-1906. University of Hull Press, 1993. Internet Archive: [https://archive.org/details/diaryofsiredward0000hami/page/456/mode/2up?q=devonshire https://archive.org/details/diaryofsiredward0000hami].</ref>{{rp|263}}</blockquote> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise and Spencer Cavendish hosted their famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London. == Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == [[File:Portrait of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, seated (1500–1558), formerly attributed to Titian (Alte Pinakothek, Munich).jpg|thumb|Emperor Charles V, seated (Titian), Bavarian State Paintings Collection, Alte Pinakotech, Munich]] With [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa Cavendish]], Spencer Compton Cavendish was host of the Duchess of Devonshire's [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | fancy-dress ball]], 2 July 1897, at Devonshire House. He sat at Table 2 at the first supper seating, escorting Alexandra, Princess of Wales in to dinner.<ref name=":3">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} The Duke of Devonshire was dressed as Charles V, Emperor of Germany; he stood at the "head" of the stairs with Louisa Cavendish and greeted the guests.<ref name=":4">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref>{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} The ''Morning Post'' says he "came down to meet the Prince and Princess of Wales."<ref name=":3" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} At the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball, Lafayette's portrait of "Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire" in costume (top right) is photogravure #6 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.<ref>"Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker & Boutall after various photographers." 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.</ref> The printing on the portrait says, "The Duke of Devonshire, K.G. as The Emperor Charles V."<ref>"Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire as The Emperor Charles V." Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158358/Spencer-Compton-Cavendish-8th-Duke-of-Devonshire-as-The-Emperor-Charles-V.</ref> The Lafayette Negative Archive has a higher resolution copy of this portrait, making it easier to see detail in the trim and the black-on-black design: http://lafayette.org.uk/dev1433.html. === The Historical Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor === The Duke of Devonshire was dressed as Holy Roman Emperor Charles V for the ball. Karl (or Charles) V (1500–1558), "the ablest and most powerful monarch of the 16th century,"<ref name=":11">Kirkup, Thomas [T.K.]. "Charles V." ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 9th Edition. 413, Col. 1b – 418, Col. 2b.</ref>{{rp|413, Col. 1b}}<blockquote>was heir to and then head of the rising House of Habsburg during the first half of the 16th century, his dominions in Europe included the Holy Roman Empire, extending from Germany to northern Italy with direct rule over the Austrian hereditary lands and the Burgundian Low Countries, and Spain with its southern Italian possessions of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|date=2022-12-28|title=Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&oldid=1129993708|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor.</ref></blockquote>We cannot know if the Duke of Devonshire consulted any sources other than the portrait of Charles V now in the Bavarian State Paintings Collection, Alte Pinakotech, Munich (right). The 9th edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' offers a sense of what was generally available to those interested in that kind of knowledge in 1897. Thomas Kirkup [T.K.]'s article on Charles V in the ''Britannica'' is substantial (running more than 5 pages, double column). Kirkup says, "Seldom, if ever, in the history of the world has any one been born to such vast possessions and to such weighty responsibilities."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|413, Col. 1b}} The beginning of Charles's reign was a consequential time in the history of a number of countries and ideas including, for example, Martin Luther's burning at the gate of Wittenberg the papal bull condemning him, which Kirkup calls "the chasm open[ing] up in the Christian world by the heroic defiance thus hurled at its spiritual chief."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|414, Col. 1b}} Kirkup goes on, <blockquote>but it soon became clear that the heart of Germany was with the Augustinian monk, and that many powerful influences, in the empire and out of it, religious, social, and national, — science, culture, patriotism, morality, and piety were working towards the overthrow of priestly domination. On all sides ... Charles had difficult work to do. In Italy and Navarre, and on the Flemish frontier, he had to make head against the armies of Francis; in Hungary and in the Mediterranean he had to arrest the progress of the Turks; he required to watch the wayward king of England ['''Henry'''] and the crafty popes, to manage the haughty susceptibility of Spanish grandees and the boisterous independent spirit of Flemish cities, to compose the religious troubles, and to stay the growing spirit of revolt against the old state of things.<ref name=":11" /> (414, Col. 1b)</blockquote> Charles was married in 1526 to Isabella of Portugal, who remained as regent of Spain when Charles left Spain for Italy in '''15XX'''.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|414, Col. 2c}}; Isabella died in 1539.<ref name=":14" /> Once established as emperor, Charles spent much of his reign attempting to suppress what Kirkup calls "the supreme question in European politics," Protestantism, but he also spent much of his time and resources in travel and in wars with the Ottoman Empire and with France. When she came to the throne in England, Mary I of England (daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon) agreed to marry him, but Charles "transferred the state duty of marrying Mary to his son Philip, who accordingly did so in 1545."<ref name=":11" /> Ultimately, Charles V abdicated, perhaps pursuing an earlier dream of ending his life in religious observance, the "process of abdication" ending in 1558.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|416, Col. 2c – 417, Col. 1a}} Kirkup says, <blockquote>But beyond a doubt the great reason for finally adopting the resolution to abdicate was his feeble health. The vigour which in his younger days had fitted him so well for the chase, the tournament, and the battle-field, was already completely undermined by incessant labour and anxiety, by repeated attacks of gout, and it must be added by the most extraordinary excess at table.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|417, Col. 1a}}</blockquote> === The Duke's Costume Costume === ==== Original for the Costume ==== The newspapers seem agreed that the Duke of Devonshire's costume was inspired by a portrait (middle right) of Charles V that is now in the Bavarian State Paintings Collection, Alte Pinakotech, Munich.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sammlung.pinakothek.de/en/artwork/RQ4XP7p410|title=Sammlung {{!}} Kaiser Karl V.|website=www.sammlung.pinakothek.de|access-date=2022-05-23}} https://www.sammlung.pinakothek.de/en/artwork/RQ4XP7p410.</ref> This museum was founded in 1836,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-11-29|title=Alte Pinakothek|url=https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alte_Pinakothek&oldid=228407478|journal=Wikipedia|language=de}} https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alte_Pinakothek.</ref> the painting having been acquired from another gallery in Munich, the Kurfürstlichen Galeri.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sammlung.pinakothek.de/en/artwork/RQ4XP7p410/tizian-tiziano-vecellio/kaiser-karl-v|title=Sammlung {{!}} Kaiser Karl V.|website=www.sammlung.pinakothek.de|access-date=2023-01-10}} https://www.sammlung.pinakothek.de/en/artwork/RQ4XP7p410/tizian-tiziano-vecellio/kaiser-karl-v.</ref> The extremely light photograph (bottom right) is useful for showing more detail of Charles V's dress. The original portrait is 203.5 x 122 cm (80.1 x 48 inches).<ref name=":15" /> This unusually personal portrait of Karl (or Charles) V has been attributed to Titian, or Tiziano Vecelli or Vecellio (1488/90 – 1576).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-09|title=Titian|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titian&oldid=1087014785|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian.</ref> As the Alte Pinakotech puts it, this painting "is simultaneously a representational picture and character study," showing him surrounded by imperial signifiers but with his face "clearly revealing his advanced age and fatigue."<ref name=":9" /> This portrait is "associated with Titian's time in Augsburg (but not always accepted as autograph)."<ref>Nicholas Penny, Jill Dunkerton, Marika Spring, Rachel Billinge, Helen Howard, Gabriella Macaro, Rachel Morrison, David Peggie, Ashok Roy, Lesley Stevenson, Nelly Von Aderkas and Jacqueline Ridge. ''Titian's Painting Technique from 1540''. National Gallery Technical Bulletin, 2015 (Vol. 36): 1–3, 5–136. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44678399.</ref> (124, n. 14) Titian made a trip to Augsburg in 1548, when this painting — among other portraits of Charles V — was made. According to the Alte Pinakotech, in Augsburg "Titian largely left the execution of this work, which is based on a sketch made in his own hand, to an assistant in his workshop, probably Lambert Sustris."<ref name=":9" /> Sustris (c. 1515-1520 – c. 1584) accompanied Titian to Augsburg in 1548 and "executed portraits" on that trip.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-12-17|title=Lambert Sustris|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lambert_Sustris&oldid=1127857969|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Sustris.</ref> The original for the Duke's costume was painted in 1548, making Charles V 48 years old at the time of his portrait; the Duke of Devonshire was 60, nearly 61. In its description of his costume, the ''Times'' notes that "the Hapsburgs and the Cavendishes are curiously alike in feature,"<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} suggesting one reason for the Duke's choice of this painting for his costume, especially if he thought he resembled Charles V as well. The Duke's knowledge of this painting raises questions of when and where he saw it and why he remembered it. Thought to have been painted by Titian, perhaps this painting would have been considered more important and perhaps its place in the Alte Pinakotech collection been more prominent than it is now. (Although its provenance is not discussed clearly anywhere we can find<ref>Possibly more information can be had here: von Sonnenburg, Hubert. "The seated portrait of Charles V." ''Tiziano: técnicas y restauraciones. Actas del simposium internacional celebrado en el Museo Nacional del Prado los días 3, 4 y 5 de junio de 1999''. Ed., M. Mancini. Museo Nacional del Prado, 1999: 99-107. (Cited in Penny et al 136, Col. 2b).</ref>, the painting seems likely to have been part of the collection at the Alte Pinakotech when the Duke could have seen it.) In the two portraits, the Duke of Devonshire and Charles V are wearing different versions of the [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish#The Insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece|insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece]]. The Prince of Wales loaned the Duke of Devonshire his own insignia for the ball.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 22}} ==== Newspaper Descriptions of His Costume ==== Some of the descriptions of the Duke's costume are so similar, they suggest a shared source or that one is the source of the other. Some sources also say that the Duke was dressed as Charles V of Germany, but Germany did not exist as a nation until formal unification began on 18 August 1866.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2023-01-10|title=Germany|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germany&oldid=1132729336|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany.</ref> *"The Duke of Devonshire, as Charles V. of Germany, after the picture by Titian. Surcoat black velvet lined satin, sleeves puffed large at shoulders. The surcoat turned back in front with black fur and ending in fur cape scolloped, black beaded embroidered pattern on end of surcoat. Doublet black Genoa velvet embroidered tiny jet black beads, slightly open on chest, showing white shirt. Black silk trunks slashed with white satin. Hose black silk high above the knee. Black velvet shoes. Toque black velvet with feather. Black Chain and Order of the Golden Fleece round neck. Sword belt, black leather and silver fastenings. Sword, scabbard black leather, oxydized hilt."<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3a}} *He was dressed as "Charles V., Emperor of Germany. Black velvet coat embroidered in black velvet and jet and lined with black fur, doublet and trunks of black brocaded velvet, the latter slashed with black satin, black tights, and black velvet cap."<ref name=":3" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} *The "Duke of Devonshire as Charles V., in a black dress."<ref name=":3" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} *"The Duke of Devonshire, as Charles V. of Germany, after the picture by Titian, wore a surcoat of black velvet, turned back in front with black fur, and ending in fur cape scolloped. The end of the surcoat was edged with thin fur. The doublet was of black Genoese velvet embroidered with tiny jet black beads slightly open on the chest, showing white shirt. The black silk trunks were slashed with white satin, hose of black silk high above the knee, shoes of black velvet, toque of black velvet with feathers, black chain and Order of the Golden Fleece round neck, sword belt of black leather and silver fastenings, sword, scabbard black leather, oxydised hilt, and steel blade."<ref name=":13">“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2a}} *"The Duke of Devonshire was an excellent foil to this mass of colour [worn by the Duchess of Devonshire], in his sombre suit of black velvet and satin, as Charles V. of Germany, after Titian’s famous picture."<ref>“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}} *"The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group."<ref>“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 1a}} *"DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE as Charles V. of Germany, after the picture by Titian. Surcoat black velvet lined satin, sleeves puffed large at shoulders. The surcoat turned back in front with black fur, and ending in fur cape scalloped, black beaded embroidered pattern on end of surcoat. Doublet black Genoa velvet embroidered tiny jet black beads, slightly open on chest, showing white shirt. Black silk trunks slashed with white satin. Hose, black silk high above the knee. Black velvet shoes. Toque black velvet with feather. Black chain and Order of the Golden Fleece round neck. Sword belt, black leather and silver fastenings. Sword, scabbard black leather, oxydized hilt."<ref>“A Jubilee Ball. Brilliant Scene at Devonshire House. Some of the Costumes Worn.” The London ''Echo'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Cols. 6a – 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0004596/18970703/027/0002.</ref>{{rp|2, Col. 6b}} *"The Duke of Devonshire was dressed after a Titian portrait of Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet surcoat turned back with fur and doublet of Genoa velvet embroidered in jet. The black silk trunks were slashed with white satin. The Order of the Golden Fleece hung round the neck by a black chain."<ref>“Girls’ Gossip.” ''Truth'' 8 July 1897, Thursday: 41 [of 70], Col. 1b – 42, Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002961/18970708/089/0041.</ref>{{rp|42, Col. 2b}} *The Duke of Devonshire represented Charles V. of '''German''', in a black velvet and satin dress."<ref>“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.</ref>{{rp|p. 2, Col. 4b}} === The Insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece === [[File:Albert P Wales 1864.jpg|thumb|alt=Old painting of a young man facing us, in a military uniform and sword, holding his helmet and wearing many decorations and two sashes across his chest|1864 Winterhalter portrait of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] According to Patrick Jackson, the Duke of Devonshire was "wearing a golden fleece lent to him for the occasion by the Prince of Wales."<ref name=":8">Jackson, Patrick. ''The Last of the Whigs: A Political Biography of Lord Hartington, Later Eighth Duke of Devonshire (1833–1908)''. London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1994.</ref>{{rp|p. 22}} The painting showing Albert Edward, Prince of Wales wearing his Insignia of the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#The Golden Fleece|Order of the Golden Fleece]] are of the young prince. (The Prince of Wales was granted this honor in 1853, when he was 11 years old.<ref name=":12">Thompson, R[obert]. H[ugh]. "The Golden Fleece in Britain." Publication of the ''British Numismatic Society''. 2009 https://www.britnumsoc.org/publications/Digital%20BNJ/pdfs/2009_BNJ_79_8.pdf (accessed January 2023).</ref>{{rp|202}}) Now in Government House, Ottawa, the 1864 Franz Xaver Winterhalter portrait of the Prince of Wales (right) shows him wearing "the ribbon and star of the Garter, the badge of the Golden Fleece, and the Star of India."<ref>Winterhalter, Franz Xaver. ''Albert Edward, Prince of Wales''. {{Cite web|url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/search#/17/collection/407368/albert-edward-prince-of-wales-1841-1910|title=Explore the Royal Collection Online|website=www.rct.uk|access-date=2023-01-16}} https://www.rct.uk/collection/search#/17/collection/407368/albert-edward-prince-of-wales-1841-1910.</ref> The insignia of the Golden Fleece is close to his neck and perhaps attached to the collar of his coat. ==== Newspaper Descriptions of the Duke of Devonshire Wearing the Golden Fleece ==== * The "Duke of Devonshire represented Charles V. of Germany, the Order of the Golden Fleece hung upon his black velvet doublet.<ref name=":6">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6b}} * "The Duke of Devonshire was attired as Charles V. of Germany, in sombre black velvet slashed with white satin, and relieved by the handsome Order of the Fleece."<ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} * The Duke of Devonshire was dressed "in the dress of Charles V — the Hapsburgs and the Cavendishes are curiously alike in feature — and wearing a genuine collar and badge of the Golden Fleece, lent him by the Prince of Wales."<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} *"From the broad gold collar of the Golden Fleece round about his neck you recognised the Duke of Devonshire in a black velvet suit."<ref>“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 2}} *"The Duke of Devonshire was attired as Charles V. of Germany, in sombre black velvet, slashed with white satin, and relieved by the handsome Order of the Golden Fleece."<ref>"The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram." ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} *"At the head of the staircase stood the Duke of Devonshire, in the dress of Charles V. — the Hapsburgs and the Cavendishes are curiously alike in feature — and wearing a genuine collar and badge of the Golden Fleece, lent him by the Prince of Wales."<ref>"The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes." Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.</ref>{{rp|11, 4a}} [scissors and paste journalism: from the ''Times''] === Observations about the Costume === * The newspaper reports are very imprecise about this costume, suggesting that the reporters did not see it. Some of their descriptions do not match Lafayette's 1897 photograph of the Duke in costume. * The darkness of both the Lafayette 1897 portrait of the Duke and the 16th-century portrait makes it difficult to see details because of how black the garments were. However, the Lafayette Negative Archive has a higher resolution copy of this portrait that shows the beading on his doublet and mantle: http://lafayette.org.uk/dev1433.html. * The Duke's [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Doublet|doublet]] and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Surcoat|surcoat]] appear to be trimmed in braid, buttons, embroidery and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Jet|jet]] beads. In the 1897 portrait, the trim on the sleeves consists of fur, satin and beaded embroidery. The surcoat is also trimmed in fur and beaded embroidery. * In both the 1897 and the 16th-century portraits, the surcoat and the doublet are impossible to distinguish from each other, so we can't tell if the sleeves are attached to the coat or are a part of the doublet. Historically, the sleeves were part of the doublet and should be in any accurate construction of the garment. * The slipper shoes and [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Hose|hose]] are similar in both portraits. In the Lafayette portrait, the shoes appear to be black velvet with a 3-dimensional trim perhaps of cord. The Duke's hose are wrinkled around his ankles, as one would expect. * '''Trunks''' * The Golden Fleece is hanging from a long collar that is possibly made of precious metals and jewels. An example of this kind of collar can be found above, in the first picture in the section on [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish#The Insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece|The Insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece]]. * The garments in the original painting and the portrait of the Duke of Devonshire are not identical: ** In the 16th-century portrait, the skirts of the coat completely cover the trunks, so whoever made the Duke's costume made up whatever details are on the trunks. The trunks are period for Charles V. ** In the 16th-century portrait, the sleeves appear to have small slashes and a ''mahoitre'' (roll at the top of the sleeves), but the sleeves in the 1897 portrait appear to have a slash or something at the shoulder. ** The ''Times''<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3a}} and the ''Evening Standard''<ref name=":13" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2a}} say that the Duke's collar for the Golden Fleece is black, but in Lafayette's photograph, it appears as if it might be gold. It does appear to be black in the 16th-century portrait. ** The crown of the Duke's hat in the 19th-century portrait is not the same as the hat worn by Charles V in the 16th-century portrait. The Duke's hat has black plumes on the side held in place by a jeweled ornament, with a decoration around the hat just above the brim. The Duke's hat is not consistent with the period: Charles V's hat is flat on top and, as far as we can tell, undecorated, but the Duke's hat seems to rise in the back and is somewhat poofy. ** Charles V's shirt collar looks more modern to us than the Duke's collar: the lacy gathers in the 19th-century photograph look more Victorian. * Although the ''Times''<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3a}} and the ''Evening Standard''<ref name=":13" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2a}} say that the trunks are "slashed with white satin," the slashes on the trunks are not white like the edge of the collar in the Lafayette portrait. We cannot see slashes on the trunks in the 16th-century portrait because the coat covers them. * The Duke's coat in the 19th-century photograph seems to be based on the 16th-century portrait: they are very similar. == Organizations == * Turf Club<ref name=":2" /> == Demographics == *Nationality: English === Residences === *Devonshire House, London (at least once he married Louisa, mid-April until mid-July, for the Season)<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 32}} *Compton Place, Eastbourne (at least once he married Louisa, mid-July until 12 August) <ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 32}} *Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (at least once he married Louisa, 12 August until the middle of September<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 32}} *Chatsworth, Derbyshire (at least once he married Louisa, middle of September until early Spring<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 32}} *Lismore Castle, County Waterford (at least once he married Louisa, early Spring until the middle of April<ref name=":0" />{{rp|p. 32}} == Family == *William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire (27 April 1808 – 21 December 1891)<ref name=":1">"William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire." "Person Page — p958." ''The Peerage: A Genealogical Survey of the Aristocracy of Britain as Well as the Royal Families of Europe''  https://www.thepeerage.com/p958.htm (accessed 2022-10-13).</ref> *Blanche Georgiana Howard Cavendish (11 January 1812 – 27 April 1840) #Louisa Caroline Cavendish (? – 21 September 1907) #William Cavendish (8 October 1831 – 15 May 1834) #'''Spencer Compton Cavendish''', 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908) #Frederick Charles Cavendish (30 November 1836 – 6 May 1882) #Edward Cavendish (28 January 1838 – 18 May 1891) *Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908)<ref name=":5" /> *[[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish | Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)<ref>"Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-26}} https://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469.</ref> == Notes and Questions == # Does the Duke's costume still exist at Chatsworth House? # Spencer Compton, Duke of Devonshire is #19 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who attended]] their ball in 1897. == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 7pedsrck3v8ti580v7fa6sxpmxsr6k6 0 264724 2823224 2822824 2026-08-19T22:49:45Z Scogdill 1331941 2823224 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles. For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = '''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movements in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion. Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries. Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle classes, who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> ==Women's fashions== [[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]]During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike in earlier centuries when women labored with their husbands and brothers or worked in family businesses, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. Farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was, for the middle and upper classes, less utilitarian.<p> Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as cage crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric were displays of wealth and status.<p> Throughout the 19th century, journalism targeting women increased enormously and addressed an increasingly more class-diverse audience. According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'',<blockquote><p> The closely allied fashion and women's journals can be divided into three phases: titles such as the ''Lady's Magazine'' continued eighteenth-century models, addressing readers as "ladies" and catering to a leisured, fashionable elite; a more domesticated format by the 1840s, targeting middle-class women with instructive and entertaining content including dressmaking and etiquette articles ...; finally, from the 1870s, a livelier, more engaging style of fashion reporting influenced by the New Journalism was integrated with an increased amount of imagery, including better quality fashion plates ....<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|last2=A|first2=R|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=215a–c|chapter=Fashion Journals}}</ref></blockquote>By the end of the century, women's periodicals were including patterns for dressmaking in their pages, reflecting the presence of middle- and working-class readers as well as technological change like sewing machines for home use and mass-produced fabrics and trim.[[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]]It is important not to oversimplify the fashion of the Victorian age. The rate of change in fashion accelerated in the 19th century to the point that styles were distinctly different from one decade to the next (see "When Was That Dress in Fashion?", above right). The styles of Elizabethan England, in contrast, changed much less extremely over the course of a century. The most important characteristics for the analysis of 19th-century fashion include silhouette or line, corsets or stays, the neckline and the sleeves. The silhouette in particular but also the color, the variety of available fabrics and the distribution of information and opinion about fashion were the result of [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological changes]] made throughout the century, but centering in the 1850s.[[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants, worn to fill open sleeves, were made of light fabrics like lace, linen, lawn or cambric.]] * '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the foundation garments. In fact the line or silhouette of garments changed about every ten years. Just as outer clothing changed, foundation garments were also modified to give the wearer a different silhouette. Over the course of the century most Europeans and some in their colonies wore the same kinds of undergarments and similar outer garments. For example, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats that used woven horsehair to stiffen them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}</ref> By 1856 the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] (a domed structure using steel bands and wires) replaced the petticoats, making the skirts lighter in weight and easier to walk in. The line of the outer garments was influenced by how full the skirt was, how small the waist was and its location relative to the natural waistline, how the sleeves were shaped, and how deep the neckline went. * '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s or stays were ubiquitous, providing adjustable bust and posture support, helping to shape the body into the fashionable silhouette and preventing horizontal creasing in the bodice. Foundation garments were constantly evolving throughout the century. Over the course of the century, almost all women and some men wore corsets. After the late 1850s, an individual could lace a corset without help.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen & Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=30-31}}</ref> Most corsets were constructed with a busk, "(a flat length of whalebone, wood or steel) inserted in a channel down the centre to smooth out the front of the dress."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|publisher=Storey|year=Neil R.|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=13}}</ref> The drawing of an undressed woman (above right) shows a self-laced corset with what may be a split busk. * '''Neckline''': Necklines changed over the course of the century as bodices and sleeves evolved. The less formal daywear had a higher neckline, regardless of class and decade. For formal wear, which varied widely by class and kind of event, the neckline was often lower and off the shoulder and finished with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (lace collar or flounce) or multiple bands of fabric pleats. This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was for dressmakers to produce two bodices with each skirt, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening. * '''Sleeves''': Over the course of the century, styles in sleeves changed radically and more than one sleeve style was fashionable at the same time. Some of the most popular styles included gigot, pagoda, ''engageants'' (see right), bishop and leg-of-mutton sleeves. The changes were in the [[armscye]], the wrist treatment, and the fullness at the shoulder, elbow and wrist. For example, as [[crinoline]]s began to appear in the 1850s, sleeves were shaped like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, or false sleeves, were stitched inside full or open sleeves like pagoda sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position. Even though the changes in fashion over the century were sometimes rapid and extreme, they were also evolutionary.[[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|thumb|English day dress, c. 1836, with bow details and puffed sleeves]] === 1830s dress style === [[File:Princess Victoria and Dash by George Hayter.jpg|alt=Old portrait of a teenage girl in a white formal dress, with a dog|thumb|Princess Victoria and her dog Dash, 1833|left]]During the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist. Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, and worn with a busk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}</ref> A chemise was worn under the corset and cut relatively low in the neck so that it could not be seen. Over the corset was a tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Under the ankle-length skirt were layers of petticoats<ref name=":0" /> stiffened with horsehair. (Skirts would not be extremely full for another two decades.) To contrast with the narrow waist, necklines were low and wide. Queen Victoria's 1833 white dress (left) shows an off-the-shoulder neckline, a higher waist and an ankle-length skirt held out by horsehair. The c. 1836 yellow day dress (right) shows gigot sleeves, a higher neckline and a skirt held out by petticoats. Always a mark of wealth and status, Princess Victoria's white dress shows that she is formally dressed, perhaps for court, although the pose itself suggests some informality as well. === 1840s dress style === The 1840s saw an increase in domestic magazines targeting women, along with new varieties in the weave of ready-made fabrics as well as new and much more vibrant colors because of the invention of aniline dyes. And the industrial revolution supplied women with more varieties of color and weave in ready-made fabrics. Cotton replaced silk as a basic fabric, especially among middle-class women because silk was expensive, limiting who could afford it. The elements of fashion changed rapidly during this transitional decade.[[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]]At the beginning of the 1840s, skirts began to widen and become dome shaped (because the skirt pieces changed from rectangles to gores, which are wider at the bottom). The waistline lowered with a point formed at the bottom of both the bodice and corset, which gave a rather rigid look to the silhouette. During this decade, the amount of trim decreased in general, although trim was still plentiful. In addition to the flowers, feathers, and ribbons many of the decorations on the dress were made of the fabric of the dress (tucks and pleats, flounces, ruffles). At the end of the decades waists rose to the natural waistline.[[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]]Although corsets narrowed the bodices and gave them a point in the early 1840s, by the end of the decade, they returned to the natural waistline. Corsets lost their straps by the end of the decade.  Busks in the front of the corset were split by Jean Julien Joselin in 1829, () but the corset wouldn’t stay closed until 1848 when Joseph Cooper patented the "slot and stud" which is still in use today.<ref name=":24" /> (75 [of 298]) Necklines remained wide with further use of lace berthas to frame the upper body. At the end of the decade, necklines were raised and remained high. Dresses were stiffer due to boning in the bodice as well as the corset. Skirts lengthened, while in 1847 widths increased with the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline], which was stiffened with horsehair and starch. The petticoats were numerous and became bulky and heavy and sometimes entangled the feet. Petticoats had another disadvantage: the number of waistbands increased with each additional petticoat. Skirts often had one or two flounces at the bottom that increased the look of fullness (see, for example, the 1844 fashion plate, right). To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}</ref> . Sleeves narrowed with smaller decorative additions (see, for example, the English silk day dress, left). They eventually widened at the wrists into open pagoda-type sleeves requiring engageants to cover the forearms. Shawls were used to convert a simple dress into a more formal outfit. The popularity of shawls grew because of the very soft and beautifully dyed and woven cashmere shawls from India with a paisley design (after the Scottish town that manufactured shawls).<ref name=":24" /> (48 [of 298]) Head coverings were ''de regeur'', dominated by poke bonnets.<ref name=":24" /> (51 [of 298]) (The mannequin in the English silk day dress, above left, is wearing a poke bonnet.) Cosmetics became more popular, with instructions The Handbook of the Toilette (anonymous, many editions beginning in 1839. Unfortunately many contained toxic elements like calcium oxide (or quicklime) found hair dye that was recommended to stay in the hair for 3 to 8 hours.<ref name=":24" /> (47 [of 298]) By the end of the 1840s skirts were more dome shaped, necklines were higher and wider and sleeves broadened at the bottom. === 1850s dress style === The 1850s saw revolutionary [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|changes in technologies]] affecting the manufacture and consumption of clothing, especially * the mass production of fabrics * the invention of synthetic dyes * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism London published nine fashion magazines by 1850 and fourteen by 1859. () Some were aimed at middle-class women, making haute couture design available to more buyers. According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'', "The 1850s and 1860s saw the eclipse of the older ladies' journals [that began in the 18th century and targeted upper-class women] and the emergence of the magazine for middle-class ... women."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland.|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=683–684|chapter=Women's Periodicals}}</ref> (684)[[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|thumb|A day ensemble c. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]] ==== Silhouette ==== The silhouette of dresses changed subtly over the course of the decade, with the most obvious changes caused by changes in the foundation garments. The changes were evolutionary in the design of the dresses themselves. A few major changes made it more possible for more women to be able to select what they wanted to wear. The amount of information and fabric available to women — most women could sew and due to reforms in education, more women could read — gave them opportunities for choosing their own clothing. The number of flounces and ruffles on the skirt increased, making the skirt look wider (see the c. 1855 day ensemble, right). ==== Neckline ==== [[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|1850s evening dress with a bertha|left]] With trim and a front closure in the corset and the bodice, the bodice emphasized a distinct V-shape. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (see the 1850s even dress with a bertha, left).<ref name="h608">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> ==== Sleeves ==== Pagoda sleeves and under sleeves (''engageants'') continued to be popular for most of the decade. ==== Foundations ==== [[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|1850s fashionable silhouette and the cage crinoline needed to support it.]] In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together with wires to form a circular cage-like structure that could support a very wide skirt (see 1950s silhouette and cage crinoline, right). Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> For a description of the [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological advancement]] that made cage crinolines possible, see below.) Not visible on the outside garment, the cage crinoline was the foundation for the huge dome-shaped skirts that dominated the decade. It was safer and easier to walk in a cage because the hoops held the skirt away from the feet and legs of the wearer. Without the innumerable petticoats more women began to wear drawers or "pantalettes" for modesty and warmth. The dome shape made possibly by the cage foundation changed the way skirts were cut. Instead of rectangles, gores were cut with one end of the skirt piece wider than the other end,<ref name="w586">{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}</ref> preventing bulkiness at the waist from gathered fabric and created a skirt bottom much wider than the top. Bloomers, designed by Amelia Jenks Bloomer,  introduced bifurcated garments for women. These were essentially trousers or pants with a seam between the legs. Even in pantalettes there was no seam between the legs; it was simply left open. This experiment failed and women didn’t wear pants until the 20th century. The 1850s saw two other developments that permanently changed the clothing available to Victorian women (and men). Created in 1856, the first synthetic dyes were much more vivid and vibrant than natural dyes and resisted fading.<ref name=":24" /> (92 [of 298]) Because Victorian photography was black and white, we do not typically see the gaudy and saturated colours that many Victorians loved.<ref name=":3" /> Also, although sewing machines had already been invented, changing the accessibility and value of individual articles of clothing, it was the invention of and widespread sale of "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing that affected large numbers of women.<ref name=":24" /> (91 [of 298]) Cage crinolines remained popular for perhaps 5 years among the fashion forward and perhaps 10 years for the less adventurous.[[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|thumb|An 1865 English silk morning dress.]] [[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress, 1864, with simple trim.]] === 1860s dress style === ==== Foundations ==== The cage crenoline reached the peak of its width during the 1860s. Photographs show that the fashion-forward Empress Eugénie of France, Empress Elisabeth of Austria and Countess Pauline von Metternich had stopped wearing the very large crinoline cages as early as 1862, but most middle- and upper-class women (including Queen Victoria) wore them for much of the rest of the decade. During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=26}}</ref> Then the fullness began to move to the back while the front became flat and close to the body. As the back fullness increased, skirts sometimes lengthened into trains. (The 1865 English silk dress, above right, shows the flattening of the front at the waist and the development of the train). In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}</ref> This line or silhouette would eventually evolve into a bustle in the next decade. Decoration or trim often appeared only at the bottom of the skirt (see English dress, 1864, below right). Flounces and ruffles diminished as geometric designs in trim began to be quite popular.<ref name=":24" /> (102 [of 298]) Skirts were also decorated with overskirts of the same fabric or a different shade of the same color. Waistlines were pointed in front below the natural waistline. By mid-century the waist was seated at the natural waistline often with a wide belt and large decorative buckle.   ==== Bodices and Sleeves ==== Bodices often had buttons down the front as both the corset and the bodice opened in the front. Necklines were generally high and rounded. Some dresses were cut without separating the bodice and skirt so it could be buttoned from the neck to the bottom of the skirt. It became popular for dresses to be made as one skirt and two bodices, one for day wear and one for formal wear.<ref name=":0" /> (43) Sleeves narrowed but remained loose on the arms and went down to the wrist. Sometimes there might be more fullness at the shoulder but not very puffed. Dresses were made to accommodate the more active life women had in sports, walking and even riding bicycles. ==== General Trends ==== Even more fabrics were available and the richer middle class was striving for acceptance among the aristocracy. Silk was still essential in the dress of wealthy middle- and upper-class women. What was new about clothing construction during this transitional decade was how clothing was cut and pieced together, which gave the wearer more freedom of movement. The trends that began in the 1860s continued through the 1870s and into the 1880s; change was evolutionary.[[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress, 1874]] === 1870s dress style === ==== Silhouette ==== The silhouette was not consistent during the 1870s because of the shape of the bustle, the addition of an overskirt and the layers of the polonaise. Foundation garments changed very little. Perhaps the greatest change came in corsets. In 1870 women were wearing corsets that came to just below the waist with a pointed center front. By 1879 corsets were being built using ‘princess’ seams to support the tailoring of the smooth, straight dresses so popular among the women who followed the fashion set by Paris. In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure,<ref name=":2" /> as increasingly slimmer silhouettes were favored. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the train was often supported with a cage. The armscye, for the first time in the period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era. ==== Skirts ==== [[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An c. 1875 English polonaise]]The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. Skirts went from their most extreme width to their most narrow, waists went to a natural level and the backside took the point of interest in the ensemble. The back of the dress became the focal point of the design. The skirt began the decade rather flat in front with most of the fabric pulled to the back. At first it was simply gathered and draped toward the backside. It evolved into bunching the extra fabric to placing a pad on the hips for supporting the extra fabric to inventing a tournure or bustle in order to keep in place the elaborate draping of the back of the skirt and train. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean. (The bustle on the 1874 black net ball dress, right, has been gathered and bunched and would require padding to keep the draping in place. It also has an overskirt.) [[overskirt|Overskirts]] became extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice often of the same fabric (see c. 1875 English polonaise, below left). Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. The [[tournure]] was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end. (The early 1870s fashion plate, below right, shows an assortment of ways overskirts were worn, including one for a girl.)[[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle & Polonaise|thumb|An early 1870s fashion plate]] ==== Neckline ==== Necklines were high and lines were sleek and fitted. Sewing a curved seam from the shoulder to the skirt bottom was the ‘princess line’ tailoring technique that was named after the new wife of the Prince of Wales, Princess Alexandra. Since Queen Victoria had been in mourning for so long, the princess was expected to lead in the haute couture of the day. She set a trend for tailored dresses that was quickly picked up by all classes.   ==== Sleeves ==== Pagoda sleeves began to lose their three-decade popularity in 1875,<ref name=":24" /> (102 [of 298]) but most sleeve treatments had narrowed the sleeves, which came to the wrist. Fringe became one of the most used decorative elements along with ribbon, braid, ball fringe, ruching, epaulettes, pieces of the same fabric in a lighter or darker shade, pieces of a different-textured fabric like velvet or velveteen, etc. ==== General Trends ==== An unusual trend occurred during the 1870s in hairstyles. Hairstyles grew to a very large placement of braids, buns, coils, poufs, and strands. Although women had been supplementing their own hair with someone else’s hair, the human hair market erupted. The elaborate hairstyles required multiple hair pieces and the tiny, over-decorated hats perched almost vertically on the head. The practice of constructing two bodices (one for day and one for evening wear) and one skirt for a dress continued from the 1860s. === 1880s dress style === [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|The lobster tail bustle of around 1885.]] The saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear inspired tailoring.<ref name=":4" /> Some credited the change in silhouette to the [[Victorian dress reform]], which consisted of a few movements including the [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Costume]] Movement and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress Movement]] in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating for a natural silhouette and lightweight underwear, and rejecting [[tightlacing]]. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing.<ref name=":3" /> Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.<ref name=":4" /> [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|left|thumb|An 1887 portrait of English evening dress with higher shoulder placement, simple trims, and a V-shaped neckline.]] After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, the bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder.<ref name="g4223"/> Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.<ref name="y040">{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}</ref> === 1890s dress style === [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]] By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style.The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4" /> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223"/> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Cosmetics == [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated by the middle classes with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. Hair color == Men's fashion == [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> Influence of Bertie, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following: * the mass production of fabrics — for example, "by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year"  [62] * the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) "wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple."<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a "bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake."<ref name=":22" /> (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: "The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal."<ref name=":22" /> (255) * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.<ref name=":24" /> (91 [of 298]) * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3" /> Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage. Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> dressmakers, couturiers, modistes == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Myths and Oversimplifications == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. === Tight Lacing === Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}</ref> (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.<ref name=":21" /> () In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} qtlq5j8pvfp7dy44cn8ls391hlclexc 14 273009 2823131 2821452 2026-08-19T13:29:09Z DavidMCEddy 218607 /* Table of episodes */ add ep. 58 to table 2823131 wikitext text/x-wiki A number of seemingly credible sources are describing an increase in political polarization worldwide. [[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]] describes how [[w:Rodrigo Duterte|Rodrigo Duterte]], former President of the [[w:Philippines|Philippines]] "started ... with five hundred volunteers<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 147-8).</ref> (1) creating “sock puppets,” or fake accounts that attack or praise; (2) “mass reporting,” or organizing to negatively impact a targeted account; and (3) “astroturfing,” or fake posts or lies designed to look like grassroots support or interest.<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).</ref> These actions tricked the algorithms of social media companies like Facebook and Twitter into amplifying fraudulent messages including incitements to violence and criminal prosecutions based on trumped up charges. The results easily overwhelmed honest media. [[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]], a Senator and former Secretary of Justice of the Philippines, spent years in pretrial detention before the charges were dropped for lack of evidence.<ref>Ressa (2022, p. 158ff) and Wikipedia, "[[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]]", accessed 2024-07-22.</ref> Ressa's news organization, [[w:Rappler|Rappler]].com, was ordered to close. Ressa herself was convicted on questionable charges. Both continued operating while the legal procedures against them were appealed.<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3) and Wikipedia, "[[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]]", accessed 2024-07-22.</ref> Ressa says similar procedures are making major contributions to the rise of fascism and far-right nationalist populists in the US, Europe, Turkey, India, Russia, and elsewhere.<ref>Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).</ref> [[w:H. R. McMaster|H. R. McMaster]], former President Trump's second National Security advisor, said that "The internet and social media thus provided [Russia] with a low-cost, easy way to divide and weaken America from within."<ref>McMaster (2020, pp. 47-48).</ref> The [[w:2021 Facebook leak|2021 Facebook leak]] documented how executives of [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[w:Meta Platforms|Meta]] knowingly prioritized profits over action to limit incitements to violence, even facilitating the [[w:Rohingya genocide|Rohingya genocide]] in [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]], because doing otherwise would have reduced their profits. This "Category:Media reform to improve democracy" include videos of experts and activists working this issue along with 29:00 mm:ss audio files submitted to a ''Media & Democracy'' series syndicated on the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]<ref><!--Media & Democracy on Audioport-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> plus text and space for moderated discussions. Some of this work is cited in the book on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which is being written -- [[w:Crowdsourcing|crowdsourced]] -- to help humans better understand how they can counter the trend toward increasing political polarization and violence by talking politics, calmly, with respect and humility, with others with whom they may vehemently disagree, because the alternative is killing humans over misunderstanding. The goal is ''not'' to convince anyone that they are wrong. Rather it is to build relationships where humans can agree to disagree agreeably and collaborate to improve issues of common concern. == Table of episodes == {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Episodes of "Media & Democracy" for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica Radio Network]] |- ! !! colspan=3 | Date !! colspan=2 | Guest(s) !! !! |- ! no. || recorded !! broadcasted on [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] !! released to Pacifica !! given name !! surname !! Organization(s) !!Episode |- |- | 58 || 2026-08-13 || 2026-08-18 || 2026-08-22 || {| | Teresa |- | Ann |} | {| | Wilke<ref><!--Teresa Wilke-->{{cite Q|Q141110943}}</ref> |- | Suellentrop<ref><!--Ann Suellentrop-->{{cite Q|Q104978249}}</ref> |} | {| | [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] |- | PeaceWorks Kansas City,<ref><!-- PeaceWorks Kansas City-->{{cite Q|Q64287449}}</ref> ... |} | [[How to expose media lies and have fun doing it]] |- | 57 || 2026-07-31 || 2026-07-11 || 2026-08-08 || Yonty || Friesem<ref><!--Yonty Friesem-->{{cite Q|Q140685186}}</ref> || Media Education Lab,<ref><!--Media Education Lab-->{{cite Q|Q140686986}}</ref> || [[Yonty Friesem on media education]] |- | 56 || 2026-07-01 || 2026-07-21 || 2026-07-25 || Dimitar || Zagorski<ref><!--Dimitar Zagorski, 3rd-->{{cite Q|Q130719781}}</ref> || [[w:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]] || [[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]] |- | 55 || 2026-07-02 || 2026-07-14 || 2026-07-11 || [[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert]] || [[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Corn-Revere]] || [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]] (FIRE) || [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]] |- | 54 || 2026-06-20 || 2026-06-23 || 2026-06-27 || Katerina || Canyon<ref><!--Katerina Canyon-->{{cite Q|Q140290658}}</ref> || Peace Economy Project,<ref><!--Peace Economy Project-->{{cite Q|Q140290765}}</ref> || [[Peace Economy Project]] |- | 53 || 2026-05-29 || 2026-06-09 || 2026-06-13 || [[w:Nolan Higdon|Nolan]] || [[w:Nolan Higdon|Higdon]] || [[w:California State University, East Bay|California State University, East Bay]] & [[w:University of California, Santa Cruz|University of California, Santa Cruz]] || [[Let's agree to disagree and seek common ground]] |- | 52 || 2026-05-14 || 2026-05-26 ||2026-05-30 || Allison || Butler<ref><!--Allison Butler-->{{cite Q|Q132918386}}</ref> || [[w:University of Massachusetts Amherst|University of Massachusetts Amherst]] || [[How women are centered and silenced in the major media]] |- | 51 || 2026-05-06 || 2026-05-12 || 2026-05-16 || [[w:Yael Eisenstat|Yaël]] || [[w:Yael Eisenstat|Eisenstat]] || Cybersecurity for Democracy (C4D),<ref><!--Cybersecurity for Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q139568543}}</ref> || [[Online platforms' effects on public health, safety and democracy]] |- | 50 || 2026-04-09 || 2026-04-28 || 2026-05-02 || Stephen || Bezruchka<ref name=Bezruchka><!--Stephen Bezruchka-->{{cite Q|Q118236581}}</ref> || [[w:University of Washington School of Public Health|University of Washington School of Public Health]] || [[How US media threaten the health of all]] |- | 49 || 2026-04-06 || 2026-04-14 || 2026-04-18 || Mickey ||Huff<ref><!--Mickey Huff-->{{cite Q|Q104530435}}</ref> || [[w:Project Censored|Project Censored]] & [[w:Ithaca College|Ithaca College]] || [[News suppressed for those who control money for the media]] |- | 48 || 2026-03-27 || 2026-03-31 || 2026-04-04 || [[w:Robin Andersen|Robin]] || [[w:Robin Andersen|Andersen]] || [[w:Fordham University|Fordham University]] || [[Media and war]] |- | 47 || 2026-03-12 || 2026-03-17 || 2026-03-21 || Bill || Yousman<ref><!--Bill Yousman-->{{cite Q|Q138604097}}</ref> || [[w:Sacred Heart University|Sacred Heart University]] || [[Media literacy to dispel myths and improve public policy]] |- | 46 || 2026-02-26 || 2026-03-03 || 2026-03-07 || Stephan || Russ-Mohl<ref><!--Stephan Russ-Mohl-->{{cite Q|Q2343781}}</ref> || [[w:University of Lugano|University of Lugano]] || [[Concerns about media, especially in Germany]] |- | 45 || 2026-02-12 || 2026-02-17 || 2026-02-21 || Paul || Bame<ref><!--Paul Bame-->{{cite Q|Q138057986}}</ref> || [[w:Prometheus Radio Project|Prometheus Radio Project]] || [[Underserved serve themselves with low-power FM]] |- | 44 || 2026-01-30 || 2026-02-03 || 2026-02-07 || Anthony || Nadler<ref><!--Anthony Nadler-->{{cite Q|Q135514734}}</ref> || [[w:Ursinus College|Ursinus College]] || [[Conservative media are different]] |- | 43 || 2026-01-15 || 2026-01-20 || 2026-01-24 || {| | Tim |- | Zach |} | {| | Franklin<ref><!-- Tim Franklin-->{{cite Q|Q137763244}}</ref> |- | Metzger<ref><!--Zach Metzger-->{{cite Q|Q137803164}}</ref> |} | [[w:Northwestern University|Northwestern University]] || [[Medill says you can help yourself by helping improve local media]] |- | 42 || 2026-01-03 || 2026-01-06 || 2026-01-10 || Lisa || Loving<ref>{{cite Q|Q65115420}}</ref> || [[w:KBOO|KBOO]] || [[Lisa Loving on media literacy and how you can report for your community]] |- | 41 || 2015-12-11 || 2025-12-23 || 2025-12-27 || [[w:John Maxwell Hamilton|John Maxwell]] || [[w:John Maxwell Hamilton|Hamilton]] || [[w:Louisiana State University|Louisiana State University]] || [[John Maxwell Hamilton on American propaganda]] |- | 40 || 2025-12-05 || 2025-12-09 || 2025-12-13 || Mark || Hurst<ref><!--Mark Hurst-->{{cite Q|Q65030170}}</ref> || Techtonic<ref><!--Techtonic-->{{cite Q|Q137087746}}</ref> || [[You can better protect yourself from Big Tech]] |- | 39 || 2025-11-20 || 2025-11-25 || 2025-11-29 || Kareem || El Damanhoury<ref><!--Kareem El Damanhoury-->{{cite Q|Q113752441}}</ref> || [[w:University of Denver|University of Denver]] || [[Differences between media outlets including coverage of Gaza]] |- | 38 || 2025-11-06 || 2025-11-11 || 2025-11-15 || Spencer || Graves<ref><!--Spencer Graves-->{{cite Q|Q56452480}}</ref> || [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] || [[Media & Democracy lessons for the future]] |- | 37 || 2025-10-23 || 2025-20-28 || 2025-11-01 || [[w:Kwame Karikari (journalist)|Kwame ]] || [[w:Kwame Karikari (journalist)|Karikari]] || [[w:Media Foundation for West Africa|Media Foundation for West Africa (MFWA)]] || [[Media reform initiatives in West Africa]] |- | 36 || 2025-10-03 || 2025-10-14 || 2025-10-18 || Seth || Radwell<ref name=Radwell><!--Seth David Radwell-->{{cite Q|Q136406332}}</ref> || || [[Seth Radwell says that the two Enlightenments tell us how to heal US political polarization]] |- | 35 || 2025-09-25 || 2025-09-30 || 2025-10-04 || Dan || Hind<ref><!--Dan Hind-->{{cite Q|Q136393606}}</ref> || Media Reform Coalition (MRC).<ref><!--Media Reform Coalition-->{{cite Q|Q135440829}}</ref> || [[Media Reform Coalition challenges anti-democratic media bias in the UK]] |- | 34 || 2025-09-12 || 2025-09-16 || 2025-09-20 || [[w:Anna M. Gomez|Anna]] || [[w:Anna M. Gomez|Gomez]] || [[w:Federal Communications Commission|Federal Communications Commission]] || [[Fighting back against the campaign of censorship and control]] |- | 33 || 2025-08-28 || 2025-09-02 || 2025-09-06 || Doug || Samuelson<ref name=Samuelson><!--Douglas A. Samuelson-->{{cite Q|Q89781201}}</ref> || [[w:Trevor N. Dupuy#Academic and research career|Dupuy Institute]],<ref name=Dupuy><!--Dupuy Institute-->{{cite Q|Q135969462}}</ref> || [[The role of the media in conflict]] |- | 32 || 2025-07-31 || 2025-08-19 || 2025-08-21 || Nick || Hart<ref><!--Nick Hart-->{{cite Q|Q135663983}}</ref> || Data Foundation,<ref><!--Data Foundation-->{{cite Q|Q134705118}}</ref> || [[Evidence-informed public policy]] |- | 31 || 2025-08-01 || 2025-08-05 || 2025-08-09 || Reece || Peck<ref><!--Reece Peck-->{{cite Q|Q131374387}}</ref> || [[w:City University of New York|City University of New York (CUNY)]] || [[What the Left can learn from Fox]] |- | 30 || 2025-07-17 || 2025-07-22 || 2025-07-26 || Natalie || Fenton<ref><!--Natalie Fenton-->{{cite Q|Q112529317}}</ref> || [[w:Goldsmiths, University of London|Goldsmiths, University of London]] || [[Democratic delusions: Fix the media to fix democracy]] |- | 29 || 2025-07-03 || 2025-07-08 || 2025-07-12 || Heidi J.S. || Tworek<ref><!--Heidi J.S. Tworek-->{{cite Q|Q135116400}}</ref> || [[w:University of British Columbia|University of British Columbia]] || [[News from Germany 1900-1945 and implications for today]] |- | 28 || 2025-06-12 || 2025-06-24 || 2025-06-28 || Nik || Usher<ref name=Usher><!--Nik Usher-->{{cite Q|Q134715348}}</ref> || [[w:University of San Diego|University of San Diego]] || [[How news impacts democracy per USD Communications Professor Nik Usher]] |- | 27 || 2025-06-08 || 2025-06-10 || 2025-06-14 || [[w:Richard R. John|Richard R.]] || [[w:Richard R. John|John]] || [[w:Columbia University|Columbia University]] || [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]] |- | 26 || 2025-05-21 || 2025-05-27 || 2025-05-31 || Dean || Starkman<ref><!--Dean Starkman-->{{cite Q|Q17036928}}</ref> || [[w:International Consortium of Investigative Journalists|International Consortium of Investigative Journalists]] (ICIJ) || [[Dean Starkman and the watchdog that didn't bark]] |- | 25 || 2025-05-08 || 2025-05-13 || 2025-05-17 || {| | Seth |- | Lauren |} | {| | Stern<ref><!--Seth Stern-->{{cite Q|Q134333839}}</ref> |- | Harper<ref><!--Lauren Harper-->{{cite Q|Q134371468}}</ref> |} | [[w:Freedom of the Press Foundation|Freedom of the Press Foundation]] || [[Freedom of the Press Foundation says...]] |- | 24 || 2025-04-24 || 2025-04-29 || 2025-05-03 || Marc || Edge<ref><!--Marc Edge-->{{cite Q|Q127419557}}</ref> || || [[Canadian journalist Marc Edge on media reform to improve democracy]] |- | 23 || 2025-04-10 || 2025-04-15 || 2025-04-19 || Katie || Moylan<ref><!--Katie Moylan-->{{cite Q|Q133832220}}</ref> || [[w:University of Leicester|University of Leicester]] || [[The value of indigenous and community radio]] |- | 22 || 2025-03-28 || 2025-04-01 || 2025-04-05 || Amy || O’Hara<ref><!--Amy O'Hara-->{{cite Q|Q133554516}}</ref> || [[w:Georgetown University|Georgetown University]] & Association of Public Data Users (APDU),<ref><!--APDU-->{{cite Q|Q131542415}}</ref> || [[Trump ordered changes in public data]] |- | 21 || 2025-03-06 || 2025-03-11 || 2025-03-22 || Rick || Goldsmith,<ref><!--Rick Goldsmith-->{{cite Q|Q1792246}}</ref> || || [[Vulture capitalists destroying newspapers]] |- | 20 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-03-08 || Roger M. || White<ref><!--Roger M. White-->{{cite Q|Q132460597}}</ref> || [[w:Arizona State University|Arizona State University]] || [[Local newspapers limit malfeasance]] |- | 19 || 2025-02-06 || 2025-02-11 || 2025-02-22 || [[w:Greg Palast|Greg]] || [[w:Greg Palast|Palast]] || || [[Palast says Trump lost, vote suppression won the 2024 elections]] |- | 18 || 2025-01-25 || 2025-02-04 || 2025-02-12 || {| | Omali |- | Elisa |- | Gerald |} | {| | Yeshitela |- | Mejia |- | Horne |} | Friends of Community Media,<ref><!--Friends of Community Media-->{{cite Q|Q100167560}}</ref>, Pacifica Fightback,<ref><!--Pacifica Fightback-->{{cite Q|Q132035380}}</ref>, ... || [[Defend free speech hybrid town hall]] |- | 17 || 2025-01-13 || 2025-01-14 || 2025-01-25 || Bulgarova || Bella Akhmedovna<ref><!--Bulgarova Bella Akhmedovna-->{{cite Q|Q131737349}}</ref> || [[w:Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia|Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia]] || [[Media in the Syrian conflict]] |- | 16 || 2024-12-20 || 2024-12-31 || 2025-01-04 || Michael || Novick || || [[HR 9495, the nonprofit-killer bill, per Michael Novick]] |- | 15 || 2024-12-13 || 2024-12-24 || 2024-12-21 || [[w:Victor Pickard (professor)|Victor]] || [[w:Victor Pickard (professor)|Pickard]] || [[w:Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania|Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania]] || [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard]] |- | 14 || 2024-12-02 || 2024-12-10 || 2024-12-07 || Ahmed || Al-Rawi<ref name=AlRawiSFU><!--SFU homepage of Ahmed Al-Rawi-->{{cite Q|Q131349551}}</ref> || [[w:Simon Fraser University|Simon Fraser University]] || [[Media literacy for the Arab World per Ahmed Al-Rawi]] |- | 13 || 2024-11-21 || 2024-11-26 || 2024-11-23 || [[w:Thom Hartmann|Thom]] || [[w:Thom Hartmann|Hartmann]] || || [[Thom Hartmann on The Hidden History of the American Dream]] |- | 12 || 2024-10-25 || 2024-11-05 || 2024-11-09 || Dimi || Dimitrov.<ref><!-- Dimi Dimitrov-->{{cite Q|Q130719781}}</ref> || [[meta:Wikimedia Europe|Wikimedia Europe]] || [[Legal concerns of Wikimedia Europe]] |- | 11 || 2024-10-26 || 2024-10-19 || 2024-10-27 || Karl || Brooks<ref name=Brooks><!--Karl Boyd Brooks-->{{cite Q|Q128214400}}</ref> || [[w:University of Kansas|University of Kansas]] || [[Project 2025 per Professor Brooks]] |- | 10 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-12 || Jacob || Ware<ref><!--Jacob Ware-->{{cite Q|Q130315296}}</ref> || [[w:Council on Foreign Relations|Council on Foreign Relations]] (CFR) & [[w:Georgetown University|Georgetown University]] || [[Jacob Ware on far-right terrorism in the US]] |- | 9 || 2024-09-13 || 2024-09-17 || 2024-09-29 || Patricia Weems || Gaston.<ref name=Gaston><!--Patricia Weems Gaston-->{{cite Q|Q130215888}}</ref> || [[w:University of Kansas|University of Kansas]] || [[Dis- and misinformation and their threats to democracy]] |- | 8 || 2024-09-11 || 2024-11-12 || 2024-09-14 || Jiva || Manske<ref><!--Jiva Manske-->{{cite Q|Q130287696}}</ref> || 22nd Century Initiative<ref><!--22nd CI-->{{cite Q|Q129361855}}</ref> || [[22nd Century Initiative]] |- | 7 || 2024-08-22|| 2024-08-27 || 2024-08-31 || Heidi || Beirich,<ref><!-- Heidi Beirich-->{{cite Q|Q128844587}}</ref> || Global Project Against Hate & Extremism (GPAHE).<ref><!-- GPAHE-->{{cite Q|Q125952435}}</ref> || [[Global Project Against Hate & Extremism (GPAHE)]] |- | 6 || 2024-08-19 || 2024-08-20 || 2024-08-24 || [[w:Frances Haugen|Frances]] || [[w:Frances Haugen|Haugen]] || || [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says]] |- | 5 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-17 || Matt || Wood<ref><!--Matt Wood-->{{cite Q|Q128630750}}</ref> || [[w:Free Press (advocacy group)|Free Press]] || [[Legal concerns of Free Press including Section 230]] |- | 4 || 2024-08-02 || 2024-08-06 || 2024-08-10 || Ian Axel || Anderson<ref><!--Ian Axel Anderson-->{{cite Q|Q128639294}}</ref> || [[w:California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] || [[How psychological and interpersonal processes are influenced by human-computer interactions]] |- | 3 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-08-03 || [[w:Dean Baker|Dean]] || [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] || [[w:Center for Economic and Policy Research|Center for Economic and Policy Research]] || [[Dean Baker on Internet companies threatening democracy internationally and how to fix that]] |- | 2 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-05-16 || Craig || Aaron,<ref>{{cite Q|Q104624986}}<!-- Craig Aaron --></ref> || [[w:Free Press (organization)|Free Press (Freepress.net)]] || [[Media reform per Freepress.net]] |- | 1 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-03-17 || [[w:Dean Baker|Dean]] || [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] || [[w:Center for Economic and Policy Research|Center for Economic and Policy Research]] ||[[Unrigging the media and the economy]] |} == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- H. R. McMaster (2020) Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World-->{{cite Q|Q104774898}} * <!--Maria Ressa (2022) How to Stand Up To a Dictator-->{{cite Q|Q117559286}} [[Category:Interdisciplinary studies]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] [[Category:Videoconferences on media and democracy]] sfkxmneful0ofweg3z75d8vwnfql1qq 0 277186 2823387 2672363 2026-08-20T03:06:21Z U3285438 3103750 /* Overview */ Made small stylistic correction by removing double space after a full stop. 2823387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|To-to lists:<br>Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/4PN-XfC2hKQ}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[wiktionary:to-do_list|To-do lists]] are external artifacts that augment human cognition so that they serve as memory enhancers by reminding people of what daily or long-term tasks need to be completed.  Studies have shown that to-do lists are the most popular personal information management tools (Gil, Y., Ratnaker, V. 2008). They are ubiquitous, whether in a handheld organiser, desktops, or traditional lists on paper and sticky notes. They are an effective tool that helps drive motivation. [[motivation]] is defined as excitement and activation towards certain activities or behaviours (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It promotes an individual to achieve personal goals and tasks. Creating a list of importance and value and defining why it needs to be done makes sense of motivation to complete it. The purpose of this chapter is to present a synthesis of how effective to-do lists are. It will focus on the list of pros and cons, and how-to-do lists encourage motivation. This chapter combines different types of to-do lists and literature research to identify the effects of motivation and success on an individual. To expand our understanding of to-do lists, a list of motivational theories, including self-determination theory, defines both internal and extrinsic motivation. Guidance is provided on writing an effective to-do list and what to consider to avoid when creating the list to have the best possible outcome. ==What are to-do lists?== To-do lists are used as a way for people to manage tasks with a systematic approach. They are an effective management tool that motivates individuals to complete set tasks. It helps break down each task and allows an individual not to feel overwhelmed. It creates a sense of self-accountability and feelings of accomplishment as each task gets ticked off the list. They are ultimately a straightforward and applicable method for people to perform set tasks quickly and effectively. Studies have shown that to-do lists are the most popular personal information for management tools (Gil, Y., & Ratnaker, V. 2008). === How can motivation help create a to-do list? === [[Motivation]] is facilitated by energy, direction, and persistence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Moreover, motivation contributes towards understanding why people behave the way they do (Ryan & Deci, 2000). It is through motivation that the needs of different tasks can be handled and tackled purposely. Essentially, motivation is a dynamic process combining one’s internal motive status of needs, cognitions and emotions and their environmental context to produce energy, direction, and persistence in their behaviour (Reeve, 2018). By grouping similar tasks together helps to remain focus on the type of work individuals are doing at the same time which this helps to avoid the risks of multi-tasking. Making sure that the tasks on the list are meaningful and motivating to ensure to get the work completed on time. == Effective to-do lists techniques == -       Write down the task as soon as it is thought of -       Assign due dates -       Revise the to-do list daily -       Make a limit on how may tasks to complete daily -       Keep goals and objectives separate -       Create specific tasks to be completed -       Categorise more than one list -       Make the to-do list the night before -       Choose the right management for the to-do list, either that be an app or on paper -       Make sure the to-do lists are achievable and realistic -       Check items off once completed === '''Set a SMART goal''' === Breaking down the to-do list to smaller and less complex tasks will boost the ability to concentrate and focus of specific tasks. The [[wikipedia:SMART_criteria|SMART Goals]] framework is a practical way to use the concepts of difficulty, specificity, and congruency. It is believed that the idea was originally developed by George Doran management by objectives concept in 1981, and it works by separating the concepts of goal setting into five sections so that goals can be shaped with the best chance of success. By keeping in mind these mechanisms, plans can be developed to influence performance, and these goals can be well aligned with the intended outcomes. The SMART structure is most commonly used in project management, employee performance management, and personal development. It is an effective tool that provides clarity, focus, and motivation individuals need when creating a to-do list. It is a structured framework that can set more specific goals and daily tasks, giving them a better chance of goal success. This structure gives individuals guidance to set self-congruent goals, as goals that individuals set themselves are more likely to be achieved compared to externally set goals. It portrays an outstanding balance between providing guidance for goal setting and allowing individuals to tailor their own goals and tasks. -       '''S'''pecific – what exactly needs to be done? -       '''M'''easurable – How will the progress be tracked? -       '''A'''chievable – is it realistic? -       '''R'''elevant – how does it fit with the overall plan or bigger goal? -       '''T'''imely – when does it need to be done by? == Build on literature == Struggling to fall asleep because future tasks are incomplete is a significant contributor to the difficulty of getting to sleep. Research is identified on whether the temporal focus of bedtime writing affected sleep onset latency, either that be a to-do list or journaling about completed tasks (Scullin et al, 2017). Participants who wrote a to-do list at bedtime fell asleep faster than those who journaled about completed tasks. The more specifically participants reported their to-do lists, the faster they subsequently fell asleep, whereas the opposite trend was observed when participants wrote about completed activities—considering the evidence that unfinished tasks are a significant source of cognitive activation and worry. There are significant benefits that the to-do lists need to be specific to sleep better. Therefore, to facilitate falling asleep, individuals may derive benefit from writing a very specific to-do list for five minutes at bedtime rather than journaling about completed activities, but also that the temporal focus of what they are writing is important, for example, future tasks rather than completed tasks (Scullin et al, 2017).  In this study, is identified that the participants that journaled about completed tasks and activities, the longer it took for them to fall asleep (Scullin et al, 2017). An explanation for this is that the individuals that are busier throughout their daily lives experience more sleep disturbances, including the difficulty of falling asleep. Furthermore, in today's dynamic society and everyone always "on the go" emphasised on work productivity, many individuals' to-do lists are extensive and incur substantial adverse effects and anxiety. So rather than journaling about the day's completed tasks or about how the day went, it is encouraged that individuals spend five minutes near bedtime thoroughly writing to-do lists. Setting boundaries is an important part of establishing one's identity and is a crucial aspect of mental health and well-being. The limits people place upon themselves that wish to be respected. It understands how to navigate anxiety and guilt and 'should' and 'have to. It's learning skills when completing the tasks. It's not easy, but it is necessary. == Theoretical frameworks == The approach of different motivational theories is the understanding of internal cognitive processes, which explores people’s behaviours—simply creating a to-do list and organising thoughts by writing them down and prioritising items that need to be completed helps encourage motivational skills by knowing what needs to be completed. When these long-term goals are broken down into smaller tasks of to-do lists, it enables people to stay focused and motivated to achieve what needs to be accomplished (Ryan & Deci, 2000). === Self-determination theory === Self-determination theory is an approach to explain motivation or why people do the things they do. It is identified from Edward Deci and Richard Ryan that it is inherent of people’s growth tendencies and innates psychological needs that are the basis for their self-motivation and personality integration and the conditions that foster the positive processes. There are three needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy that appear to be essential for facilitating optimal functioning of personal growth and integration, as well as for constructive social development and personal wellbeing. Motivational forces can be described for practical purposes as either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is often portrayed as separate and distinct. People’s behaviour can be pretty complex; however, it is often drawn from multiple sources of motivation in the pursuit of a goal (Ryan, Kuhl & Deci, 1997). Self-determination theory proposes that people have intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. === '''Extrinsic motivation vs. Intrinsic motivation''' === There are benefits to both types of motivation; each has an essential view on behaviours and how people choose to pursue specific goals. Extrinsic motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by external rewards. Extrinsic motivation is set based on completing a behaviour with the belief of receiving something in return for the act. It arises from environmental incentives and consequences such as food, money, shelter, praise, attention, and certificates. Extrinsic motivation is portrayed within places of work by employees performing tasks at work that they usually dislike keeping getting a regular paycheck, bonuses, competitions and can even be threats of termination of career to motivate employees. To simply put it, extrinsic motivation refers to individuals performing tasks and learning new skills from external rewards or avoiding punishment. In this case, people engage in the behaviour not because they enjoy it or find it appealing but to obtain something of value in return or avoid something unpleasant. Another factor of extrinsic motivation is cooperation. To-do lists don’t always have to be for a single person, and they can be used for a team or with work colleagues. However, if there is no incentive to cooperate with individuals that the individual doesn’t have any interaction with, the quality of this cooperation is likely to be relatively poor  (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation behaviours are engaged for their very own sake, by being task enjoyable and not being instrumental toward some other outcome. Unlike extrinsic motivation, which is the inherent need to complete a task with the belief of receiving something in return. Completing challenging functions that help to expand skills and knowledge will give the internal purpose and drive, for example, it would be reading a book because of the enjoyment of reading and have an interest in the story or subject, rather than having to read it to write a report on it to pass a topic. It is believed that it provides the best chance for a long term interest in an activity (Ryan & Deci, 2000). == Factors that impact to-do lists == To-do lists can be a great way to stay motivated and organised. However, people suffer with common problems that effect the approach of a successful to-do list. They can be too frustrating and an overwhelming daily challenge for people to achieve. Writing too many to-dos is the biggest limitation of creating this task. When people have one big to-do item but the amount of time it takes and the longer the list of tasks and goals, the less powerful a tool the to-do list becomes. It causes a persistent feeling of worry, while distracting from tackling those tasks that are easily achievable. It can result in anxiety from having too many conflicting goals causing a decrease in productivity, physical and mental health. Another potential stressor is knowing that one has incomplete tasks, that is, items left on the ''to-do list''. In the cognitive science literature, incomplete tasks are known to remain at a high level of cognitive activation, spurring automatic thoughts about the incomplete tasks (Scullin et al, 2017). The tasks can feel way out of reach to achieve for that time frame, and as a result, becomes out of control. Ultimately, by ignoring the complex tasks can be a set up for a feeling of failure and disappointment. The effect of having a list of uncompleted tasks can be draining and increase levels of anxiety, guilt and even burn out. Simply, making sure the to-do list is achievable in the time frame and it can be accomplished and construct a workable timetable for the day, provides boosts of motivation and insight (Scullin et al, 2017) == How effective are to-do lists? == {{expand}} === Reduce task anxiety === Simply when writing something down, the brain can stop holding onto all those task ideas, which can reduce task anxiety and any feeling of being overwhelmed. It is researched that intuit writing could decrease a state of worrying and increase rumination, and many studies now portray that writing benefits mental health, classroom success, end even physiological markers of antonym, muscular, and immune function (Scullin et al, 2017). The tendency to obsess over unfinished tasks is called the Zeigarnik effect, after a psychologist, Bluma Zeigarnik, portrayed an example that waiters only remembered orders before they were served, as soon as the meals were delivered, the constant thought and memory of getting the meals out to them has vanished. === Focus === To-do lists are entirely helpful as memory enhancers as they require repeatedly constructing, consult, and interpreting. Having a list to stay on track of the day will help with organisational skills and remain focused. Any meaningful task or routine takes a large part of one’s focus. For example, the low concentration at work or school makes the individual more likely to be less productive, and the time that is valued is gone, also with momentum and peak of creativity. == Conclusion == To-do lists are an effective tool to manage motivation and creativity. It helps break down set tasks and allows an individual not to feel overwhelmed or frustrated. To-do lists give a sensation of ticking jobs off the list and feeling accomplished with oneself. They can be portrayed as simple but also can be too overwhelming for people if they aren't done correctly. Creating a reasonable and achievable will help with overall daily success. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Goal setting techniques|Goal setting techniques]] (Book chapter, 2018) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Multi-tasking and productivity|Multi-tasking and productivity]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Passion and motivation|Passion and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Carl Pullein. (2020). ''Why do to-do lists destroy productivity''. [Video] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JD-Z4x1aXKQ Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''140''(4), 980–1008. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035661 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. ''Canadian Psychology Psychologie Canadienne'', ''49''(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801 Gil, Y., & Ratnakar, V. (2008). Towards intelligent assistance for to-do lists. ''Proceedings of the 13th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces'', 329–332. https://doi.org/10.1145/1378773.1378822 Nash, J. (2018, January 5). How to set healthy boundaries & Build Positive Relationships. ''Positive Psychology''. https://positivepsychology.com/great-self-care-setting-healthy-boundaries Ray, R. (2021). ''Setting boundaries''. Macmillan Australia. Reeves, J. (2015). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Wiley. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''The American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Scullin, M., Krueger, M., Ballard, H., Pruett, N., & Bilwise, D. (2017). The effect of bedtime writing on difficulty falling asleep: A polysomnographic study comparing to-do lists and completed activity lists. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', ''147''(1), 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000374 }} ==External links== {{ic|Rename the links so they are more user-friendly, as per Tutorial 1.}} * How to set healthy boundaries https://positivepsychology.com/great-self-care-setting-healthy-boundaries/ *[https://dl.acm.org/doi/epdf/10.1145/1378773.1378822 Towards intelligent assistance for to-do lists ://dl.acm.org/doi/epdf/10.1145/1378773.1378822] *Why to-do lists destroy productivity https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JD-Z4x1aXKQ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal setting]] fl27djaktpfrbd3jlzvc6eii6nrb6jw 0 277370 2823158 2560401 2026-08-19T15:18:43Z NDM2024 2984088 /* -->Excel Data Registration Form */ 2823158 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Maritime Health Research and Education-NET/DM2|Return to page-> DM2]] '''<big>Prevalence of Diabetes 2 in seafarers</big> ''' <big>'''MAHRE-NET PROGRAM "EARLY DIAGNOSTIC OF DIABETES-2 THROUGH ROUTINE MEDICAL EXAMS" - FILIPPINE GROUP'''</big> <big>'''OBJECTIVES'''</big> Measure the prevalence of Diabetes 2 with an Hb1Ac blood test in A RANDOM SAMPLE among seafarers/fishermen who come for their medical examination - ====[https://www.dropbox.com/s/aaru4rcrqlmn2ll/2022%20Excel%20Clinical%20Data%2023%20Feb.xlsx?dl=0 -->Excel Data Registration Form]==== '''Time: Data collection for a pilot study from xxx to xxxx''' <big>'''PROTOCOL'''</big> ====Background==== The prevalence of diabetes 2 is globally increasing and especially increasing with social inequality in health in relation to work and living conditions among others in transport workers <ref>Herttua, Kimmo, Linda Juel Ahrenfeldt, and Tapio Paljarvi. “Risk of Major Chronic Diseases in Transport, Rescue and Security Industries: A Longitudinal Register-Based Study.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, August 29, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2021-107764</ref> There is a significant underreporting of diabetes 2, and the true prevalence is not known <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mata-Cases|first=Manel|last2=Mauricio|first2=Dídac|last3=Real|first3=Jordi|last4=Bolíbar|first4=Bonaventura|last5=Franch-Nadal|first5=Josep|date=2016-11-01|title=Is diabetes mellitus correctly registered and classified in primary care? A population-based study in Catalonia, Spain|url=https://www.Elsevier.es/en-Revista-endocrinologia-nutricion-english-edition--412-articulo-is-diabetes-mellitus-correctly-registered-S2173509316300952|journal=Endocrinología y Nutrición (English Edition)|language=en|volume=63|issue=9|pages=440–448|doi=10.1016/j.endoen.2016.10.005|issn=2173-5093}}</ref>. As part of DASAM's work with inequality in health in relation to occupational medicine, we will focus on some professional groups in the transport area with the greatest inequality in health that are at the same time covered by regular compulsory health examinations. These include among others the locomotive drivers at DSB, the bus drivers, the airline pilots, and the maritime staff, fishers, and seafarers. The intention is to utilize the one- or two-year mandatory health examinations in these groups to include tests for diabetes 2 with Hb1Ac strategically selected samples of the various professional groups in these occupations. The program starts in Spain with a descriptive study of the target group's prevalence of Diabetes2 from the 16th of June to 31th of December 2021 in one Maritime Health Clinics in Tarragona and two clinics in Barcelona. Later the intervention will be proposed inspired by what is already ongoing in different countries. Also, it is interesting that the Danish agreement 2021 for general practitioners focuses on inequality in health and professional development <ref>https://ugeskriftet.dk/nyhed/ny-overenskomst-de-praktiserende-laeger-har-fokus-pa-ulighed-i-sundhed-og-faglig-udvikling</ref> ====Purpose==== To measure the Hb1Ac prevalence in the target groups in this first step of the program. Early diagnosis and prevention of diabetes2 among employees in some jobs with mandatory health examinations. To use the mandatory health examinations to include valid tests for diabetes2, i.a. with a blood test to measure Hb1Ac. To use valid methods for diagnosis, prevention, and follow-up of the effect of interventions. The prevention includes i.a. arranging the organization of the work routines, and the workplaces so that employees with Diabetes2 can continue their employment with due consideration keeping their Diabetes2 in well-treated status. The aim is to provide a foundation safe and healthy preventive strategies within the UN Global Sustainable Goals, especially Goal 3: Good health and well-being for all workers and Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. ====Goals==== Systematization and national centralisation of the results of the mandatory medical examinations for different job groups, ====Study design==== Cross-sectional [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research clinical] study using data collected in the maritime health clinics, GP-clinics, and the OM-clinics ====Time frame for data collection==== Data are collected from xxx to xxxx in GP1 and GP2. The data collection stops when 400 participants in each country is included. ====Inclusion criteria==== # All the selected groups of transport workers, seafarers, and fishermen, coming to routine health examinations are included in a given time period. # Participants are invited randomly irrespective of risk status, for example, not only those with visible higher risk status for example with obesity. # Retrospective random samples of medical records for 1/2 year for all, with inclusion of all coming to medical examination without any selection due to higher risk and with interview informations # Those with normal A1C results in the test are included as positive diabetes if they have answered "yes" having diabetes in the interview scheme. # To get unbiased samples of prevalence data, then all seafarers/fishers/transport workers coming for routine medical examination must be included in the study irrespective of their (visible) risk (while daily practice is something else) The study example below shows that if only those at higher risk (obesity and overweight) are included, then pre- and diabetes prevalence results will be biased to higher prevalences like 20.0% and 33.4% in these IMC groups respectively for Pre-diabetes and Diabetes added together '''Demographics''' Place: GP1, GP 2, age, gender, seafarer, fisherman, nationality. ====Laboratory data==== HbA1c, height in cm and weight in kg. If fasting plasma glucose (FPG) is taken in the clinic per routine then the result is included in the Excel Data Forms. ====Data collection ==== # Laboratory data as above # Personal information from the interview scheme on known diabetes and use of Metformin ====Data collection ==== Retrospective digitalised data from the medical records for one year using the same inclusion criteria of all coming to medical examination irrespective of risk status ====Diagnosis==== Most of the European Maritime authorities’ national fit-for duty guidelines, have chosen to follow the International “Guidelines” example as stated on page 51 (Appendix F) in the “Guidelines” by offering urine dipsticks analysis without mentioning the need for a supplemental HbA1C or other valid test for an unbiased early diagnosis of T2D<ref>Yap, C.W., Ang, Y.G., Quek, T.P.L., Heng, B.H., Chew, D.E.K., 2018. Re-examining the sensitivity of HbA1c to screen for diabetes mellitus. Journal of Diabetes 10, 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-0407.12615 </ref><ref>Guidelines on the medical examinations of seafarers [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 Dec 22] Available from: http://www.ilo.org/sector/Resources/codes-of-practice-and guidelines/WCMS_174794/lang--en/index.htm</ref> . Due to the low sensitivity to detect T2D without false negatives, urine dipsticks should be used to determine pathological changes in urine but not for the early diagnosis of T2D. The urine dipstick test should be supplemented with the fasting glucose or Hb1Ac test for the early diagnosis of T2D. The valid clinical monitoring of T2D among fishers, seafarers and other transport workers is the basis for an effective, evidence-based intervention plan. Amendments are needed, in the training curriculum for maritime medical doctors and in the international and national guidelines <ref>Jensen, O. C. Et al. & MAHRE-Net, Rethinking the use of urine dipstick for early diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes 29 Dec 2021 (Submitted): International Maritime Health</ref>,<ref>Jensen, O. C. et al. Early diagnosis of T2DM using highly sensitive diagnostics tests in the mandatory medical examinations for fishers, seafarers and other transport-workers (Accepted 28 Dec 2021): Primary Care Diabetes</ref><ref> Wei, Ooi Yau, og Stewart Teece. “Urine dipsticks in screening for diabetes mellitus”. Emergency Medicine Journal : EMJ 23, nr. 2 (februar 2006): 138. https://doi.org/10.1136/emj.2005.033456</ref>,<ref> Friderichsen, Bolette, og Margareta Maunsbach. “Glycosuric tests should not be employed in population screenings for NIDDM”. Journal of Public Health 19, nr. 1 (1. marts 1997): 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubmed.a024588</ref> One test Hb1Ac ≥ 6,5% or a Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) ≥ 126 mg/dl is sufficient to confirm the diabetes diagnosis. [https://www.diabetes.org/a1c/diagnosis '''American Diabetes Association''' ] lt ====Personal Prevention==== Simple lifestyle measures have been shown to be effective in preventing or delaying the onset of type 2 diabetes. To help prevent type 2 diabetes and its complications, people should: # Achieve and maintain healthy body weight # Physically active – doing at least 30 minutes of regular, moderate-intensity activity on most days. More activity is required for weight control # Eat a healthy diet, avoiding sugar and saturated fats; and # Avoid tobacco use – smoking increases the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease One test, HbA1c is sufficient to diagnose diabetes. A positive diagnosis can be made if the HbA1c level is ≥6.5% A case of positive diagnosis should later be confirmed with a repeat HbA1c test [https://www.diabetes.org/a1c/diagnosis '''American Diabetes Association'''][https://endocrinology.dk/ '''Danish Endocrinological Society'''] ====Intervention in collaboration with the shareholders ==== The shareholders in the respective job groups are included to help to establish the needed specific conditions available for keeping good health practices for employees with Diabetes 2 in the different job types. This is in order to have good opportunities during the working day to have time and allowance for relevant work breaks, restroom visits, access to healthy meals in a good social company, and possibilities for adequate physical activities. These conditions are different for each job group and the analysis of these conditions and suggestions on how it can be made optimal is part of the project. Installations for the adequate structural change in the workplaces, time for meal breaks and restroom visits, cooks are hired to make healthy lunches, fitness room, and other relevant installations. ====Ethics for protection of personal data==== Confidentiality in the handling of personal data is in accordance with the rules of the national data protection agencies and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and is prepared with. No personally sensitive information is included in the data set given to the researchers, so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. ====References==== [[Category:Diabetes]] [[Category:Philippines]] aavdagyhy45hng88e9mumxgvb8mbt0x 0 285380 2823148 2822549 2026-08-19T14:16:53Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2823148 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260818.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> phs0y0b2jqtccsvd9tgtbnmmwz4c5zf 4 285491 2823206 2821406 2026-08-19T19:53:02Z Alexis Jazz 791434 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) 2823206 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}} The following data is cached, and was last updated 2026-08-19T06:28:57Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |CleanDeletions || 75 || 0 |- |EnhancedTalk || 1402 || 4 |- |HideFundraisingNotice || 841 || 7 |- |HotCat || 923 || 15 |- |LintHint || 119 || 2 |- |Round Corners || 1190 || 1 |- |contribsrange || 389 || 5 |- |dark-mode || 138 || 4 |- |dark-mode-toggle || 192 || 6 |- |edittop || 520 || 7 |- |popups || 885 || 6 |- |purge || 739 || 12 |- |sidebartranslate || 561 || 1 |- |usurper-count || 120 || 1 |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: CleanDeletions,75,0 EnhancedTalk,1402,4 HideFundraisingNotice,841,7 HotCat,923,15 LintHint,119,2 Round Corners,1190,1 contribsrange,389,5 dark-mode,138,4 dark-mode-toggle,192,6 edittop,520,7 popups,885,6 purge,739,12 sidebartranslate,561,1 usurper-count,120,1 --> 70bbuqmdpmdanvoq0f98g3520qj3zle 0 305659 2823141 2822906 2026-08-19T14:12:04Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Idealized Galactic Years */ 2823141 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === Idealized Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] k0qshbyxyxaaujupmr213u5bwjfma7z 2823142 2823141 2026-08-19T14:13:01Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Idealized Galactic Years */ 2823142 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === Idealized Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] pha8vsc0jjs40mvq714dfw15k8orbq1 2823155 2823142 2026-08-19T14:56:26Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2823155 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez]] and Reinhard Genzel were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known to be a black hole—at the center of our galaxy. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === Idealized Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] i9bdi2s0e5munsr04kkmo7hxwbmsqgs 2823156 2823155 2026-08-19T14:57:39Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2823156 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known to be a black hole—at the center of our galaxy. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === Idealized Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5wm9c6dch8kz6t1kzjpjhnj70nj7udr 2823157 2823156 2026-08-19T15:07:37Z Unitfreak 695864 This edit was provided by Google Gemini. 2823157 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known to be black hole Sagittarius A*-at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, they mapped the orbits of the brightest stars closest to the galactic center with extreme precision. Both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's and Andrea Ghez's research teams calculated the exact distance to the galactic center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. === Idealized Galactic Years === If the Sun followed a perfectly circular orbit around the Milky Way, with a radius of [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' ideal orbit into "Galactic Weeks," where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each one thousand parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years). The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] hz60i9g711mx0nd4pqhok5ff2r0wkqx 2823160 2823157 2026-08-19T15:41:45Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Calendar */ 2823160 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5ctwpo05ouifp7g87yqp1v7stxddfvd 2823162 2823160 2026-08-19T15:44:10Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Idealized Galactic Years */ 2823162 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ndvspbzj4sru3wvx4ts52tum5ep9ib9 2823163 2823162 2026-08-19T15:45:17Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Idealized Galactic Years */ 2823163 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 1qu9t3g4w2w2zmxj5p12baunvd4sslm 2823164 2823163 2026-08-19T16:03:26Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius */ 2823164 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is this Calendar Realistic? === === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] A '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. This duration is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] bwnay26i1bl3v43171xrmzw8fv37nzz 2823165 2823164 2026-08-19T16:04:39Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The power of two */ 2823165 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is this Calendar Realistic? === === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 1lfnu5f54tz6g27k1za0ipmx1f2dhs9 2823166 2823165 2026-08-19T16:07:07Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is this Calendar Realistic? */ 2823166 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Updating the Galactic Calendar ==== To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4e''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 5dzfe4ajsns30ojac1xof3ye9fxz7s2 2823167 2823166 2026-08-19T16:24:08Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Updating the Galactic Calendar */ 2823167 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] c5hf0n3rpb91e1gpe1wbb7glqxtxypy 2823169 2823167 2026-08-19T16:36:55Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? */ 2823169 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that 1.008 weeks ('''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''') corresponds to 1008 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1008 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 1009-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] qp0phl20o70g9d62gahqmhg6b3oxw78 2823170 2823169 2026-08-19T16:38:56Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? */ 2823170 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2000-parsec mark. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] g0uj7bm6cagc00ekplbvrvu3nya1wza 2823171 2823170 2026-08-19T16:40:21Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? */ 2823171 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2000-parsec mark. === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 3wlxyqe46vxvf25skyuteflzct6fr0s 2823172 2823171 2026-08-19T16:41:09Z Unitfreak 695864 /* TBD */ 2823172 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2000-parsec mark. === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. ==== The Idealized Galactic Orbit ==== The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] exurkmc9bdpc6z84ar125y096feibbv 2823173 2823172 2026-08-19T16:47:45Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2823173 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. === Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? === [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the galactic center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4a:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4a). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4a''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2000-parsec mark. === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] acx1pyenucpleqyi465opps12yaq83c 2823174 2823173 2026-08-19T16:57:49Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? */ 2823174 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes 1,000 parsecs per However, since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of long-term stable physical reality. The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4b: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 6eua8jjiynrypk87grv594mp5150vau 2823179 2823174 2026-08-19T17:10:12Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the system internally consistent */ 2823179 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in an idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 1610 Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ij14astxymxrrf300cmn93oy5dselo6 2823180 2823179 2026-08-19T17:12:09Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Idealized Galactic Years */ 2823180 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 1610 Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} === TBD === To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. To account for this operational drift, the "Solar Distance Traveled" column within the Galactic Calendar should be updated periodically based on integrated values. These revisions should ensure that both past recorded and future predicted solar travel distances continue to reflect the best available estimates as observational astrophysics improves measurements of: *The precise center of '''Sagittarius A*''' *The coordinates of the descending node of the Solar System’s '''Laplace invariable plane''' === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] cbbxsni0l2vva179a2jywzzhffssphz 2823181 2823180 2026-08-19T17:18:50Z Unitfreak 695864 /* TBD */ 2823181 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 1610 Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.44-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. |'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic center, the Invariable Plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in Figure 4d: * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ta6irnbfqafnfm5lw3t0aj5prm2ore3 2823182 2823181 2026-08-19T17:28:23Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The galactic ecliptic node near Sagittarius */ 2823182 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4c:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 1610 Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 4d''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 1qqcm7aik9jxzqx4a5quwvykz322ehk 2823183 2823182 2026-08-19T17:29:44Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Idealized Galactic Years */ 2823183 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 1610 Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 4d''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] swfl5sygq633rnkmsk2vmcd94t8pz3j 2823184 2823183 2026-08-19T17:31:33Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Is the system internally consistent? */ 2823184 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 4d''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ld020u0gi4yicn9yhukxyrffi37xjt5 2823185 2823184 2026-08-19T17:37:56Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2823185 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 4d''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 4d:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 4d''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] lnzfvou5jrhb2qgzoz11pdss3sti1mg 2823186 2823185 2026-08-19T17:41:25Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */ 2823186 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4c''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 4e''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4c assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 4e uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] lauq4cdkn0ytb2yxh23qtacfxzz7sex 2823187 2823186 2026-08-19T17:43:48Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sun */ 2823187 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] gqk02xodofeb9tgsqczbxcrejawgbxa 2823189 2823187 2026-08-19T18:52:49Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Laplace invariable plane */ 2823189 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] ecifpyseg6hne9v0l1ho7ch330zs8d4 2823190 2823189 2026-08-19T18:53:34Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2823190 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the Invariable Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°). <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] flm75gt33udej7pbn1f3m6izsqegmdn 2823191 2823190 2026-08-19T19:01:06Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius */ 2823191 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Calendar. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1008 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 4e:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D8EF F732}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA95 7C41}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ED1A D868}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EFA0 348F}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F225 90B6}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1010 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] hwwb7pet44baam2izm56nzyo3uj3kn9 2823194 2823191 2026-08-19T19:23:08Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sun */ 2823194 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored to an intermediate value of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 0ey3lzhsr3sgszew4hrv2cgmtvd4g71 2823195 2823194 2026-08-19T19:23:29Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sun */ 2823195 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored to an intermediate value of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === ==== The Laplace invariable plane ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] be2hkhyjalibx9bmfuuqhezy9g7qvdu 2823196 2823195 2026-08-19T19:30:07Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2823196 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored to an intermediate value of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] s81q59scv84jw5wiiauwk50hzh3cafo 2823197 2823196 2026-08-19T19:31:08Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius */ 2823197 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Laplace invariable plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored to an intermediate value of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] njz941jrtkxbl1m3caa4gyas4yjg75r 2823198 2823197 2026-08-19T19:32:28Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius */ 2823198 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored to an intermediate value of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully galactic year (2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps), whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully galactic year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] gogfzug9k7s7rijoadqglvd2okr824e 2823199 2823198 2026-08-19T19:37:50Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sun */ 2823199 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * Invariable Plane Node (+): Marked with a large plus sign. * Jupiter (♃): Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * Uranus (⛢): Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * Saturn (♄): Positioned on the inner left. * Neptune (♆): Positioned on the far left. Bully timestamps are designed to align with the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way, and they are anchored to the descending node where the Solar System’s Laplace invariable plane intersects the galactic equator. The Laplace plane is dominated by angular momentum contributions from large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. All of these large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the traditional meaning of "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. As noted in Merriam-Webster's dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history. {{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker<ref>(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Bully. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved May 16, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully)</ref>.}} ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] nu5uhc52cvhj22jxj0w2me9xjcbjcml 2823200 2823199 2026-08-19T19:46:29Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2823200 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} ==== Bullies in the Bully System ==== A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 1m3addlc36ybgq78jc0vd2qrtdgtyxz 2823201 2823200 2026-08-19T19:46:59Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2823201 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 7boykx1hmy4v0o0s994hfgz0i3kp0yi 2823202 2823201 2026-08-19T19:48:47Z Unitfreak 695864 /* A surrogate for the Sun */ 2823202 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] b3h6sqjwnfa97y3qhmbk3yuko3grukf 2823203 2823202 2026-08-19T19:50:53Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The power of two */ 2823203 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. == What about the Earth and Moon? == The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] g4htdleng8ccadv6i8eoht24nvt0f4t 2823204 2823203 2026-08-19T19:51:38Z Unitfreak 695864 /* What about the Earth and Moon? */ 2823204 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] kmt1nvbp7zle2sn2f89e2zfjbvlyfs7 2823205 2823204 2026-08-19T19:52:06Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Metonic cycle */ 2823205 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. === Earth's sidereal year === The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] sllcn6rp00ewkvopelnqm0d4yy6appr 2823209 2823205 2026-08-19T20:46:29Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's sidereal year */ 2823209 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 3p69tl786g3jjmomz3obv9xuc6lcm1h 2823210 2823209 2026-08-19T20:49:12Z Unitfreak 695864 /* What about the Earth and Moon? */ 2823210 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? ===The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] mdi8pgz5t204lw6ekpynimbrnb4ovhm 2823211 2823210 2026-08-19T20:49:43Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Bullies in the Bully System */ 2823211 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. === Earth's tropical year === The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 3p69tl786g3jjmomz3obv9xuc6lcm1h 2823212 2823211 2026-08-19T20:50:21Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823212 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. === The Metonic cycle === The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] fhwlj7sxsz1y0t9ia5j4mdg2tsl49ou 2823213 2823212 2026-08-19T20:50:42Z Unitfreak 695864 /* The Metonic cycle */ 2823213 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,926 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] et8cidbw9hq07j5a7gos5iycz62bo06 2823214 2823213 2026-08-19T20:53:35Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823214 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts exactly '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to the axial precession—the slow, 26,000-year wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. While the 3,055-second fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system does not divide into this total as perfectly as it does the sidereal year, the tropical year still serves as a critical secondary anchor for aligning the timestamp system with human seasonal calendars. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] 599tpvyhijhzvsxe0odafc2o31wvhpi 2823215 2823214 2026-08-19T21:14:50Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823215 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 1224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the Sidereal and Tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25824 sidereal years. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] nuane34jztexcmaajhhplizmgq5mj02 2823216 2823215 2026-08-19T21:17:22Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823216 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s rotational axis—the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] pb3tmos4wkkgee37ljm08z0x1lx1orm 2823217 2823216 2026-08-19T21:42:58Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823217 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] There are two different processes at work in '''Figure 5c'''. One process is axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s rotational axis. The other process is orbital eccentricity. In 1998, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was four days longer than winter because at that time the Earth's aphelion was more aligned with summer and its perihelion was more aligned with winter. During aphelion the earth moves faster in its orbit, so which ever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] lv0cjwziyal4t88fly1ufvm24xesksy 2823218 2823217 2026-08-19T21:45:03Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823218 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years. [[File:TBD.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] There are two different processes at work in '''Figure 5c'''. One process is axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s rotational axis. The other process is orbital eccentricity. In 1998, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was four days longer than winter because at that time Earth's aphelion was more aligned with summer and its perihelion was more aligned with winter. During aphelion Earth moves slower in its orbit, so whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] edjqiubvx0a2eac6glvtaedr5p0eh9g 2823219 2823218 2026-08-19T21:45:29Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Earth's tropical year */ 2823219 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Galaxy. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years. [[File:TBD_Place_Holder.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] There are two different processes at work in '''Figure 5c'''. One process is axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s rotational axis. The other process is orbital eccentricity. In 1998, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was four days longer than winter because at that time Earth's aphelion was more aligned with summer and its perihelion was more aligned with winter. During aphelion Earth moves slower in its orbit, so whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] przfpkfs43t7i438tdw7htijamdveof 2823630 2823219 2026-08-20T11:31:55Z Unitfreak 695864 /* */ 2823630 wikitext text/x-wiki <small>[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> </small> The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is: &thinsp; :<math>16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}</math> == One Solar Radius == [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (<math>R_\odot</math>) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius: &thinsp; :<math>\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}</math> &thinsp; '''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period. === The Heliosphere === The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁴ Bully timestamps.]] The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16⁴ (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere. Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''. Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space. === Naked Eye Stars === '''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16⁸ successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16⁸ Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe. [[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of "Naked Eye" stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16⁸ Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of "Naked Eye" stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16⁸ ''R''_☉.]] [[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]] == The Galactic Calendar == [[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole. By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π: :<math>\begin{align} {\text{Circumference}} &= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\ &\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \end{align}</math> If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into "Galactic Weeks", where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks. === Idealized Galactic Years === Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;" |+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} <br/>'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}''' |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} <br/> '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}''' |} Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''. ==== Is the Bully Calendar Realistic? ==== [[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]] The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits. Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate. In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark. ==== Is the system internally consistent? ==== Earlier in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second orbital timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per '''2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps''', which is not exactly the same. Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16¹⁰ Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit. The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp up to '''1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits''' with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹¹''' | 396,635 | 416,000 |- | 1 / 2 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰''' | 24,789.7 | 26,000.0 |- | 1 / 32 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16⁹''' | 1,549.36 | 1,625.00 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2 × 16¹⁰''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 52,000 |- | 1 / 52 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1,000 |- | 1 / 52,000 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''16¹⁰ / 26,000''' | style="color: #888;" | N/A | 1 |} == Anchoring Bully Timestamps == To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The subsequent subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was anchored to the June solstice in 1998. === The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius === '''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator. [[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]] As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the invariable plane's galactic ecliptic node—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Sun and the node that are moving. ==== A surrogate for the Sun ==== The path of the invariable node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Center. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°): <math> \begin{aligned} d &= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\ &\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc} \end{aligned} </math> Based on this calculation, the galactic ecliptic node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year. To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment, indicating that a travel distance of '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', whereas a travel distance of '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponds to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. The Bully timestamp system was anchored using an intermediate timestamp of '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.) {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;" |+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Year 66 <br /> Galactic || {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}} |} === Bullies in the Bully System === A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending nodes of each giant planet's ecliptic where they intersect the galactic equator are shown in '''Figure 5a''': * '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign. * '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node. * '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter. * '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left. * '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left. As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word "bully" had a positive connotation through much of history:{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was 'sweetheart'. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, 'lover'. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker.“Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}} Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of "excellent" or "beautiful" and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. In the Bully timestamp system, the specific "bullies" are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]]. === What about the Earth and Moon? === The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement. Over deep time, gravitational interactions cause variations in these orbits. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics. ==== Earth's sidereal year ==== The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This can vary by up to 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to tugs from neighboring planets, but when these are averaged out, the remaining century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is value in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. It turns out that 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals exactly '''10,330 Bully timestamps'''. ==== Earth's tropical year ==== The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years. [[File:TBD_Place_Holder.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]] There are two different processes at work in '''Figure 5c'''. One process is axial precession—the slow wobble of Earth’s rotational axis. The other process is orbital eccentricity. In 1998, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was four days longer than winter because at that time Earth's aphelion was more aligned with summer and its perihelion was more aligned with winter. During aphelion Earth moves slower in its orbit, so whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest. ==== The Metonic cycle ==== The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles * July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B''' * July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238''' * July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA''' </div> [[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]] ==== The power of two ==== {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;" | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Time Duration</span> ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;" | <span style="font-size: larger;">Orbital Distance (Parsecs)</span> |- ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Galactic Years</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small>Bully Timestamps</small> ! style="background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;" | <small> Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''_☉ per Bully timestamp </small> |- | '''2³''' = 8 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁴''' | '''2^18.666''' ≈ 415,935 |- | '''2^-1''' = <math>\frac{1}{2}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴⁰''' | '''2^14.666''' ≈ 25,996 |- | '''2^-5''' = <math>\frac{1}{32}</math> | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2³⁶''' | '''2^10.666''' ≈ 1,624.74 |- style="background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;" ! colspan="4" style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | Off Nominal Values |- | '''2⁰''' = 1 | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2⁴¹''' | '''2^15.666''' = 51,991 |- | '''2^-15.666''' | style="text-align: left; padding: 8px;" | '''2^25.334''' | '''2⁰''' = 1 |} The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16⁸ ''R''_☉ is remarkably close to 10¹⁰ light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing: &thinsp; :<math>\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%</math> &thinsp; Furthermore, these values (16⁸ ''R''_☉ and 10¹⁰ light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16⁸ ''R''_☉ is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''. == Bully Timestamp Realization == Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered "realized" when time is measured with an accuracy of 10^-10. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). [[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]] === Time Estimation Divisions === [[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]] For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets: ==== First Set ==== * ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]] ** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]] ** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}'' ** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]] ** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]] </div> ==== Second Set ==== * ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include: <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]] * Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]] </div> [[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]] (Ma) represents one million (10⁶) years.]] ==== Third Set ==== * ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years. <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> * Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}'' ** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]] </div> === Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift === In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}. If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars. This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Redshift z <br /> (z = ∞ to 2) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}} |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};" | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}} |} The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years. [[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure "lookback" time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue. [[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]] The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;" |+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates |- style="background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;" ! style="padding: 10px; font-size: large;" | Bully Timestamp <br /> (z = 1 to 0) || SHOES Team <br /> (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration <br /> (13.8 Gyr) |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093 |- style="font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};" | style="font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};" | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000 |} === Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations === What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference? The "age of the universe" cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the "CMB rest frame." Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All "realized" Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference. Furthermore, the "estimated" Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited. [[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]] == Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time == Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is "contextual" because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic "leaps" (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1. In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to "true time" at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures. [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]] The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively "frozen" in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds. The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this "legacy offset" confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. [[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]] == Why do we need Bully timestamps? == All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps. |- ! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps] |- | rowspan = 3 | [[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0| June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 pm (JST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 7:59:29 pm (CST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 2:59:29 pm (EEST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)</br> June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 8:59:29 am (BRT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 4:59:29 am (PDT)</br> June 21, 1998 at 1:59:29 am (HST)</br> ]] || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)<br/> 06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)<br/> 06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS) ]] |- ! Bully Timestamp |- || [[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]] |} ==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ==== The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain "cluttered" by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several "leap" seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time. For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains "tethered" to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome "hybrids" that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation. ==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ==== The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time. Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format: [http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com] [https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com] [http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com] == The Foundations of Bully Metric == The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to <math>10,330 \times 3,055</math> SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system. The name "Bully" is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, "bully" means '''"beautiful" or "excellent,"''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of "bullies" like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system. * [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]] * [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]] == The Bully Mnemonic == <math display="block"> {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} </math> <math display="block"> 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years </math> <math display="block">{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years </math> The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps. * [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]] * [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]] fx288fy3c9e100s88sri20advc7s08o 0 305987 2823470 2740812 2026-08-20T03:46:47Z U3292769 3106878 Added title and subtitle to page. 2823470 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Basal ganglia and motivation<br>What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour?}}{{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Basal ganglia and motivation|Basal ganglia and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2023) ju7cne3pp6wk63hy6mh4lsy6osnnd1x 1 307245 2823383 2815009 2026-08-20T02:53:30Z Sienna33309 3106991 /* Helpful references */ new section 2823383 wikitext text/x-wiki == Helpful peer reviewed APA 7 article for Hygiene Motivation if you wish to add or remove!! == The concept of hygiene motivation is examined in the study by Curtis, V., & Cairncross, S. (2003), which emphasises that people's hygiene behaviours are primarily driven by the desire to avoid disgust rather than by health education alone. The authors contend that disgust is a potent motivator that can be used in public health campaigns to promote better hygiene practices, particularly in prevention of disease transmission. The study underscores the significance of comprehending emotional drivers like disgust in designing more successful health interventions. Curtis, V., & Cairncross, S. (2003). Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review. ''The Lancet Infectious Diseases'', ''3''(5), 275–281. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00606-6</nowiki> [[User:U3214564|U3214564]] ([[User talk:U3214564|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3214564|contribs]]) 08:19, 15 August 2024 (UTC) == Feedback and Suggestions == Hey Jack, I really like your book chapter so far! I found this article from Miller in 2020 which covers motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak. I think this would be an interesting topic to explore and touch on within your book chapter. This article focusses primarily on the role of human behaviour in the COVID-19 outbreak and the speed of the spread across the world, and how human hygiene motivation was associated with the progression. Here is the reference to the article: Gibson Miller, J. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. ''British Journal of Health Psychology'', ''25''(4), 856–864. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12426</nowiki> Good luck! :) - Alyssia [[User:Alyssia Myers|Alyssia Myers]] ([[User talk:Alyssia Myers|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alyssia Myers|contribs]]) 11:15, 15 August 2024 (UTC) Hello Jack, it looks like you are hard at work on your page, I've adding another figure to your page, hopefully it'll help you flesh out your article !![https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OCD_handwash.jpg this is the image], you could use it to talk about personal hygiene, such as washing one's hands !!! Good luck [[User:Gabriel Geld|Gabriel Geld]] ([[User talk:Gabriel Geld|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gabriel Geld|contribs]]) 08:43, 16 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2024 |1= <!-- Title --> # The title and sub-title are correctly worded; casing has been corrected # I've abbreviated the sub-title (same meaning) |2= <!-- Headings --> # Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. # Consider abbreviating the two introductory sections (2 and 3) into a single section; it is OK to retain but keep these sections relatively brief, with embedded links to further information so that the chapter concentrates on psychological science # Remove trailing colons <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Good alignment between focus questions and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section # Add an image to the scenario or case study to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # Use sentence casing (Hygiene -> hygiene) # Move quiz into a subsequent section |4= <!-- Key points--> # Partial development of key points for some sections, with limited use of relevant citations <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of theory and research, with practical examples # It is unclear whether the best available psychological theory and research has been consulted in the preparation of this plan <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion (the most important section): ## Hasn't been developed ## What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?) |5= <!-- Figure --> # A relevant figure is presented, captioned, and cited # The figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text # Caption citations should refer to Figure rather than figure (APA style) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # One use of in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters <!-- Examples/case studies --> # Promising use of example(s)/case study(ies) <!-- Other --> # Consider including more examples/case studies, quiz question(s), table(s) etc. |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Insufficient <!-- Suggestions --> # Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to External links # Are there any systematic reviews about this topic? |8= <!-- Resources --> # See also ## Not developed # External links ## Not developed |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Brief description about self provided – consider expanding <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # Link provided to book chapter |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # At least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence # The links to evidence can be improved (i.e., be more direct/accurate). For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:53, 18 August 2024 (UTC) == social contribution == hey, I like the case study you have used. linking it to how hygiene decline directly impacts him emotionally and mentally. You could expand on the motivation factors leading to this decline. you could link it to psychological theories and discuss motivational theories like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or self-determination theory in relation to hygiene maintenance to add to the depth of your chapter. you could also expand on methods to increase hygiene motivation with actionable steps. Great work so far and good luck :) [[User:U3236683|U3236683]] ([[User talk:U3236683|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236683|contribs]]) 07:00, 3 October 2024 (UTC) == General tips == Hello, Here are some suggestions to enhance your chapter: First, consider simplifying John’s scenario to make it more relatable. Clearly outline how his hygiene standards declined due to increased stress. This will help readers connect with his situation better. Make sure your figure captions are clear and directly related to the content, like explaining the relevance of washing hands in Figure 1.r. Make sure your figure captions are clear and directly related to the content, like explaining the relevance of washing hands in Figure 1. [[User:U3219927|U3219927]] ([[User talk:U3219927|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3219927|contribs]]) 11:35, 6 October 2024 (UTC) == Helpful references == Hi there, I have a suggestion for some references you may like to look at for your topic! '''Motivation Hygiene Theory:''' Brenner, V. C., Carmack, C. W., & Weinstein, M. G. (1971). An empirical test of the motivation-hygiene theory. ''Journal of Accounting Research'', 359-366. '''Application to real world & COVID:''' Gibson Miller, J., Hartman, T. K., Levita, L., Martinez, A. P., Mason, L., McBride, O., ... & Bentall, R. P. (2020). Capability, opportunity, and motivation to enact hygienic practices in the early stages of the COVID‐19 outbreak in the United Kingdom. ''British journal of health psychology'', ''25''(4), 856-864. [[User:Sienna33309|Sienna33309]] ([[User talk:Sienna33309|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sienna33309|contribs]]) 02:53, 20 August 2026 (UTC) o8lf2xmp69dbt7av4ypdql58nil1xlm 0 322040 2823241 2816704 2026-08-20T01:23:15Z Unitfreak 695864 2823241 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} | [https://physwiki.eeyabo.net/index.php/Main_Page <small>Development <br/>Area</small>] |} [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future. Each Bully timestamp should be considered "realized" after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math> or better. === Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) === The below table (derived from the Wikipedia "Leap Second" article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972. For each leap second insertion, the below table lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been "realized" immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was "realized" immediately after the leap second insertion). A few details are worth noting in the table. The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ECFB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ED02 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. You will also note that Bully timestamps are realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero. The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Announced leap seconds to date |- ! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) |- ! 1972 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFB E7FB <br /> 8209 ECFB E7FC <br /> 8209 ECFB FC4F <br /> 8209 ECFB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI <br /> 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI <br /> 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC <br /> 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC <br /> 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC |- ! 1973 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 24A2 <br /> 8209 ECFC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC |- ! 1974 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 4CF4 <br /> 8209 ECFC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC |- ! 1975 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 7547 <br /> 8209 ECFC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC |- ! 1976 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 9DB6 <br /> 8209 ECFC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC |- ! 1977 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC C609 <br /> 8209 ECFC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC |- ! 1978 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC EE5C <br /> 8209 ECFC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI <br /> 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC <br /> 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC |- ! 1979 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFD 16AE <br /> 8209 ECFD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI <br /> 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC <br /> 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC |- ! 1981 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 531C <br /> 8209 ECFD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC |- ! 1982 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 7B6F <br /> 8209 ECFD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC |- ! 1983 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD A3C2 <br /> 8209 ECFD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC |- ! 1985 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD F484 <br /> 8209 ECFD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC |- ! 1987 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE 597D <br /> 8209 ECFE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC |- ! 1989 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE AA3F <br /> 8209 ECFE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC |- ! 1990 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE D291 <br /> 8209 ECFE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC |- ! 1992 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 0EFF <br /> 8209 ECFF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI <br /> 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC <br /> 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC |- ! 1993 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 3752 <br /> 8209 ECFF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI <br /> 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC <br /> 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC |- ! 1994 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 5FA5 <br /> 8209 ECFF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC |- ! 1995 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFF 9C4B <br /> 8209 ECFF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI <br /> 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC <br /> 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC |- ! 1997 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF D8B9 <br /> 8209 ECFF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC |- ! 1998 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED00 1560 <br /> 8209 ED00 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC |- ! 2005 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED01 2FDC <br /> 8209 ED01 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC |- ! 2008 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED01 A8F0 <br /> 8209 ED01 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC |- ! 2012 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 3604 <br /> 8209 ED02 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC |- ! 2015 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 AEFC <br /> 8209 ED02 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI <br /> 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC <br /> 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC |- ! 2016 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED02 EBBF <br /> 8209 ED02 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI <br /> 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC <br /> 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC |} === Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) === [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 2: Rubber Seconds]] Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the "rubber second" (see figure 2). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&nbsp;s step (0.05&nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed. As shown in figure 2, for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC "rubber seconds" meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}. The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&nbsp;s steps were needed (see figure 2). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972. At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC. By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC. The following table illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta |- ! Approximate Bully Timestamp <br /> Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) <br /> Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative <br /> Difference |- ! 8209 ECF9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . . 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec |- ! 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.4 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.6 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.717 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.8 sec) <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI <br /> 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.875 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.975 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.0 sec) <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI <br /> 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.080 sec || 4.055 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 4.155 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI <br /> 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 4.313 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . . 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . . 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI <br /> 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec |} 6duzvwl9ztkqgvhtlbpfqb9cmn8z7pm 2823242 2823241 2026-08-20T01:24:34Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) */ 2823242 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} | [https://physwiki.eeyabo.net/index.php/Main_Page <small>Development <br/>Area</small>] |} [[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]<br /> [[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]<br /> [https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]<br /> There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future. Each Bully timestamp should be considered "realized" after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of <math>{10}^{-10}</math> or better. === Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) === The below table (derived from the Wikipedia "[[W:Leap Second|Leap Second]]" article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972. For each leap second insertion, the below table lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been "realized" immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was "realized" immediately after the leap second insertion). A few details are worth noting in the table. The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ECFB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ED02 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. You will also note that Bully timestamps are realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero. The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Announced leap seconds to date |- ! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) |- ! 1972 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFB E7FB <br /> 8209 ECFB E7FC <br /> 8209 ECFB FC4F <br /> 8209 ECFB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI <br /> 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI <br /> 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC <br /> 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC <br /> 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC <br /> 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC |- ! 1973 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 24A2 <br /> 8209 ECFC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC <br /> 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC |- ! 1974 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 4CF4 <br /> 8209 ECFC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC <br /> 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC |- ! 1975 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 7547 <br /> 8209 ECFC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC <br /> 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC |- ! 1976 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC 9DB6 <br /> 8209 ECFC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC <br /> 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC |- ! 1977 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC C609 <br /> 8209 ECFC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC <br /> 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC |- ! 1978 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFC EE5C <br /> 8209 ECFC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI <br /> 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC <br /> 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC |- ! 1979 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFD 16AE <br /> 8209 ECFD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI <br /> 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC <br /> 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC |- ! 1981 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 531C <br /> 8209 ECFD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC <br /> 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC |- ! 1982 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 7B6F <br /> 8209 ECFD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC <br /> 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC |- ! 1983 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD A3C2 <br /> 8209 ECFD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC <br /> 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC |- ! 1985 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD F484 <br /> 8209 ECFD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC <br /> 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC |- ! 1987 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE 597D <br /> 8209 ECFE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC <br /> 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC |- ! 1989 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE AA3F <br /> 8209 ECFE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC <br /> 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC |- ! 1990 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFE D291 <br /> 8209 ECFE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC <br /> 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC |- ! 1992 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 0EFF <br /> 8209 ECFF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI <br /> 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC <br /> 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC |- ! 1993 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 3752 <br /> 8209 ECFF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI <br /> 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC <br /> 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC |- ! 1994 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 5FA5 <br /> 8209 ECFF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC <br /> 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC |- ! 1995 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ECFF 9C4B <br /> 8209 ECFF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI <br /> 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC <br /> 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC |- ! 1997 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF D8B9 <br /> 8209 ECFF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC <br /> 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC |- ! 1998 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED00 1560 <br /> 8209 ED00 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC <br /> 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC |- ! 2005 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED01 2FDC <br /> 8209 ED01 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC <br /> 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC |- ! 2008 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED01 A8F0 <br /> 8209 ED01 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC <br /> 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC |- ! 2012 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 3604 <br /> 8209 ED02 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC <br /> 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC |- ! 2015 |bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 AEFC <br /> 8209 ED02 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI <br /> 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC <br /> 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC |- ! 2016 | 0 ||bgcolor="lime"| +1 || 8209 ED02 EBBF <br /> 8209 ED02 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI <br /> 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC <br /> 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC |} === Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) === [[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 2: Rubber Seconds]] Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the "rubber second" (see figure 2). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&nbsp;s step (0.05&nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed. As shown in figure 2, for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC "rubber seconds" meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}. The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&nbsp;s steps were needed (see figure 2). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972. At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC. By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC. The following table illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;" |+ Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta |- ! Approximate Bully Timestamp <br /> Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) <br /> Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative <br /> Difference |- ! 8209 ECF9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . . 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI <br /> 1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec |- ! 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI <br /> 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI <br /> 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI <br /> 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI <br /> 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI <br /> 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI <br /> 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI <br /> 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.4 sec) <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI <br /> 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec |- ! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.6 sec) <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI <br /> 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec |- ! 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8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . . 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI <br /> 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC | -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . . 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI <br /> 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec |- ! 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) <br /> 1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI <br /> 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC | 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec |} otc4rbq9ql11876okrdxtkrbdzcec0n 0 322580 2823107 2730811 2026-08-19T12:28:18Z Med.011387 3108415 /* */ 2823107 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion|Wisdom, motivation, and emotionMed13]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] agghwvfxx9ditvo9iwqif9scn5145g2 2823232 2823107 2026-08-20T00:02:45Z Jtneill 10242 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Med.011387|Med.011387]] ([[User_talk:Med.011387|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] 2723581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion|Wisdom, motivation, and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2024) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Wisdom]] 69qiy98fjzwcexysp705w4iuntvwxxa 0 322621 2823381 2762016 2026-08-20T02:46:41Z U3285438 3103750 /* What is cancer screening? */ Fixed grammatical error to increase sentence clarity. (Added missing conjunction and removed unnecessary comma). 2823381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cancer screening and emotion:<br>How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Diagram showing T stages of bowel cancer CRUK 276.svg|thumb|right|300px|Diagram of T-stages in bowel cancer]] ;Imagine ... You are 23 years old and notice something unusual with your body. Weeks pass, but you ignore it. Many of your symptoms match those linked to [https://www.bowelcanceraustralia.org/bowel-cancer/early-onset/ Bowel Cancer] , but that seems impossible, right? You’re only 23. Fear and anxiety take over, and you delay seeing a doctor or undergoing a screening, convincing yourself that not knowing is safer than facing the possibility of bad news. By the time you seek help, your health has deteriorated rapidly. A screening confirms bowel cancer, but it’s already at stage four. The only treatment option left is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palliative%20care palliative care]. Now, let’s rewind and change the scenario. You’re the same 23-year-old, noticing something is wrong. You still feel fear and anxiety but this time, those emotions push you to act. You want relief and don’t want to keep carrying the weight of uncertainty, so you seek answers to ease your mind. You see your doctor immediately, who recommends a cancer screening. The result is still bowel cancer, but it’s been caught early. Surgery successfully removes the tumor, and your survival chance is over 90%. These two stories show how the same emotions fear and anxiety can either prevent action and lead to devastating outcomes or motivate action and lead to life-saving results. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Many people wonder, if early {{what}} detection improves survival, why do so many avoid screening? The truth is, it {{what}} isn’t just a medical decision but an emotional one. Fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and shame can delay {{what}} action, while relief and reassurance drive others to screen. These emotions can make {{what}} screening feel overwhelming, even when it’s free or accessible. Understanding these challenges helps explain why {{what}} participation rates remain lower than expected{{f}}, and shows both the barriers and opportunities for encouraging more people to take part in life-saving cancer screening. This chapter explores how emotions shape cancer screening. It begins by explaining what screening is and why early detection matters. It then examines barriers such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and stigma, alongside positive emotions like relief, hope, and empowerment. Public health campaigns are considered for their role in shaping behaviour. Finally, three psychological theories: the Health Belief Model, Protection Motivation Theory, and Theory of Planned Behaviour are applied to explain these emotional patterns and suggest strategies for improving participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How do fear and anxiety influence decisions about cancer screening uptake? * What role does relief-seeking play in motivating individuals to undergo screening? * In what ways can anxiety act as both a motivator and a barrier to screening participation? * Why are some individuals more likely than others to seek medical answers promptly? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is cancer screening?== '''Screening vs diagnosis''' Cancer screening checks for disease in people without symptoms, aiming to detect cancer early when treatment is most effective (Better Health Channel). In Australia, national programs exist for breast, cervical, bowel, and lung cancer. Screening differs from diagnosis, as screening looks for possible disease while diagnosis confirms cancer through further investigation. '''Importance of early detection''' According to the Australian Government Department of Health (2025), cancer often develops slowly and may remain symptomless until later stages, when treatment is less effective. Early detection allows intervention before spread, improving outcomes. The AIHW (2022) reports that breast cancer mortality among women aged 50–74 dropped from 74 deaths per 100,000 in 1991 to 41 in 2020 since BreastScreen Australia began, highlighting the life-saving potential of screening. It is important to note however Australia only represents a small portion of the human population. '''Examples of screening programs''' Australia offers national screening for breast, cervical, bowel, and lung cancer. Other high-income countries provide similar programs, with some differences. The UK screens for breast cancer every three years rather than two, while some US groups recommend starting at 40. Australia uses HPV testing for cervical screening, whereas many countries still use Pap smears. Bowel screening here is via mailed FIT kits, but in Germany and the US colonoscopy is common. Lung cancer screening is not routine in Australia, while the US and Canada recommend low-dose CT scans for high-risk groups. Germany and Austria also offer skin cancer screening (Ebell et al., 2018). '''Survival rates''' Early detection greatly improves survival across cancers. For lung cancer, five-year survival for stage 1 is ~64% (Cancer Treatment Centers of America, n.d.). For breast cancer, survival is close to 100% at stage 1 but only 32% at stage 4 (National Breast Cancer Foundation, n.d.). Cervical cancer survival is 91% when detected early versus 19% for distant stage (National Cancer Institute, n.d.). In bowel cancer, the AIHW (2025) reported 7,265 diagnoses and 1,793 deaths in Australians aged 50–74 during 2024, showing the impact of early detection. [[File:Lead time bias.svg|Lead_time_bias]] Figure 1. Comparison of cancer detected through screening versus symptoms, showing how earlier detection can increase perceived survival time. This earlier diagnosis may reduce anxiety and provide relief, but fear of the result can also deter some individuals from screening. {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 1. Survival rates by cancer type and stage of detection''' ! Cancer type ! Early detection survival rate ! Late detection survival rate |- | Lung (Stage 1) | 64% | Much lower in later stages |- | Breast | 100% (Stage 1) | 32% (Stage 4) |- | Cervical | 91% (early stage) | 19% (distant stage) |- | Bowel (Australia, 2024) | 7,265 diagnosed (50–74) | 1,793 deaths (50–74) |} ==Emotional barriers to screening== If survival is so much higher with early detection{{f}}, what stops people from screening? Often, it comes down to emotion. Have you ever avoided something because you feared the result? “Ignorance is bliss” captures the mindset many adopt. Avoiding stressful situations can feel easier than confronting them.{{f}} Despite the life-saving potential of screening, many avoid it due to emotional barriers. Fear, anxiety, embarrassment, and stigma can outweigh rational awareness of benefits. These barriers are shaped not only by individual psychology but also by broader cultural and social influences.{{f}} '''Fear of diagnosis''' Avoiding threats is human nature. Furedi (2007) argues a “culture of fear” encourages avoidance. In cancer screening, fear of bad news can create denial and delay. For many{{f}}, seeking help makes the issue feel more real, while ignorance feels safer. The Health Belief Model (HBM) suggests fear heightens severity and susceptibility but can also raise barriers{{f}}. A relatable example is procrastinating on an assignment: the stress of confronting it outweighs the relief of finishing it. Similarly, fear of {{what}} results can outweigh benefits of early detection{{f}}. Fear increases risk perception (“I could have cancer”) but often leads to avoidance (“I don’t want to know”). Many postpone mammograms despite knowing the risks, convincing themselves not knowing is preferable{{f}}. According to the HBM, behaviour occurs when perceived benefits outweigh barriers (Conner & Norman, 2015). In screening, fear raises awareness but also amplifies distress{{f}}. Thus, fear can motivate or paralyse, depending on threat perception and coping ability. '''Anxiety about pain, discomfort, or embarrassment''' Biardeau et al. (2017) found nearly 60% of {{what}} patients reported pain during cystoscopy{{explain}}, 41–58% anxiety, and 22–35% embarrassment. These {{g}} highlight how discomfort deters participation. In cancer screening, pain plus embarrassment from intimate procedures (Pap smears, HPV tests, colonoscopy, FIT kits) are strong deterrents{{f}}. HBM explains this as barriers outweighing benefits, while PMT suggests high threat plus low coping appraisal leads to avoidance. Biardeau et al. (2017) also found younger patients and those given detailed information sometimes reported higher anxiety, showing distress can stem from expectations as much as the procedure itself. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Emma, 55, avoided her free bowel kit, calling it “gross” and “awkward.” Despite family history of cancer, months later it remained unopened. Embarrassment outweighed her knowledge of benefits, showing how discomfort blocks participation. [[File:Bowel cancer Home Test Kit Instructions and test tubes in Australia, 2022.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Home bowel cancer screening kit and instructions]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} '''Stigma and shame''' Stigma and shame, shaped by culture or religion, also deter screening{{f}}. Ahmed et al. (2022) found Caribbean women avoided breast and cervical screening due to modesty or stigma. Screenings often involve “taboo” body parts, amplifying embarrassment. Stigma intersects with identity gender, age, religion and in some communities is wrongly linked to sexual activity or “bad morals.” Though inaccurate, this belief deters participation. The TPB explains this through subjective norms: when communities see screening as shameful, this norm can override knowledge of benefits. HBM also frames shame as a barrier. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} A migrant woman avoids a Pap smear because only male GPs bulk bill in her area. Reinforced by her husband’s views, stigma and financial barriers outweigh her friends’ reassurance, so she avoids screening. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Positive emotions and motivation to screen== '''Relief-seeking''' On the positive side, many find relief in cancer screening and use it to reduce uncertainty. A normal result provides peace of mind, often motivating repeat screening and encouraging others to participate. Relief can therefore create a positive cycle{{f}}. However, relief also carries risks. Some interpret a clear result as proof they are safe, delaying follow-ups{{f}}. Marteau (1990) explained that while screening reduces psychological burden, it can also mask ongoing risk if results are misinterpreted. HBM suggests relief increases perceived benefits, but false reassurance reduces susceptibility. PMT suggests relief lowers threat appraisal if not paired with strong efficacy messages.{{f}} '''Hope, empowerment, and reassurance''' Hope, empowerment, and reassurance shape screening. Feeling in control of one’s health reduces anxiety and increases uptake{{f}}. Autonomy, like accessing screening without referral, strengthens agency. Hope can also turn fear into action. For some, fear motivates, and seeking reassurance through screening reduces uncertainty.{{f}} Health campaigns can foster empowerment by emphasising choice. Davison and Degner (1997) found participation {{vague}} reinforced feelings of control. Similarly, Affendi et al. (2018) showed self-efficacy predicts health behaviour. Confidence consistently predicts preventive action, aligning with HBM (self-efficacy) and TPB (perceived control). '''Public Health Campaigns and Framing''' Public health campaigns strongly influence screening. Positive framing that fosters hope and empowerment is often more effective than fear appeals. Fear can motivate, but only when people feel able to respond otherwise, it drives avoidance (PMT).{{f}} Gressard et al. (2017) found smokers initially knew little about lung cancer screening but showed interest when informed. However, fatalistic beliefs, distrust, and confusion limited uptake. This shows campaigns must avoid fuelling misconceptions and instead provide clear, supportive messages. Done well, they can transform fear into motivation and encourage participation. Relief, hope, and empowerment especially when reinforced by positive campaigns can strongly encourage screening. Yet these same emotions, if misdirected, may create false reassurance. Effective interventions must balance reassurance with accurate communication about ongoing risk. ==Theoretical perspectives== '''Health belief model (HBM)''' [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ The Health Belief Model (HBM)] has long been used to explain health behaviours. Developed in the 1950s by psychologists in the United States Public Health Service (USPHS), it aimed to understand the low uptake of preventative measures such as screening (Alyafei & Easton-Carr, 2024). Today, it remains a widely applied framework for health-related decision-making. Its core constructs are: • '''Perceived susceptibility''' – belief about personal cancer risk. • '''Perceived severity''' – seriousness of cancer if undetected. • '''Perceived benefits''' – value of early detection (e.g., survival rates). • '''Perceived barriers''' – deterrents like pain, embarrassment, or stigma. • '''Self-efficacy''' – confidence in completing screening. • '''Cues to action''' – triggers such as reminders, GP advice, or campaigns. Fear and anxiety interact with these constructs. Fear can heighten susceptibility and severity, while anxiety may raise barriers through discomfort or embarrassment. In contrast, reassurance strengthens perceived benefits and builds self-efficacy. For example, a woman may weigh her fear of discomfort (barrier) against the peace of mind she expects from knowing her results (benefit).{{f}} Critics argue{{f}} HBM is overly cognitive and neglects emotions and social influences, giving it less of a “human feel.” While it cannot fully predict behaviour, it remains valuable for understanding how people approach cancer screening. '''Protection motivation theory (PMT)''' [https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/10/protection-motivation-theory/ Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)], proposed by Rogers (1975), explains health behaviour through two appraisals: threat appraisal (severity, vulnerability) and coping appraisal (response efficacy, self-efficacy, costs). Core constructs include: • '''Perceived severity''' – seriousness of the threat (e.g., cancer). • '''Perceived vulnerability''' – likelihood of being affected. • '''Response efficacy''' – belief screening reduces risk. • '''Self-efficacy''' – confidence in completing screening. • '''Response costs''' – barriers such as pain, time, or embarrassment. Fear and anxiety are central. Ruiter et al. (2001) showed fear appeals work only when coping appraisal is high. If people believe screening is effective and achievable, fear can motivate action. When coping is low, fear leads to denial, avoidance, or minimisation. A classic example is the “Grim Reaper” campaign (1987), a confronting HIV/AIDS ad in Australia. It grabbed attention but highlighted the limits of fear appeals, people who didn’t see themselves at risk ignored it, while others felt stigmatised or more afraid. From a PMT perspective, the ad created high threat appraisal but little coping appraisal, showing fear alone isn’t enough. Reviews suggest coping appraisal predicts behaviour more strongly than threat appraisal. Effective interventions must therefore combine realistic risk information with empowering, confidence-building messages. '''Theory of planned behaviour (TPB)''' [https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)] explains behaviour through attitudes (beliefs about outcomes), subjective norms (social pressure), and perceived control (confidence and resources, similar to self-efficacy) (Ajzen, 1991). Together these shape intention, which predicts behaviour. Emotions influence each factor. Fear and anxiety can create negative attitudes and avoidance, while hope and relief encourage positive attitudes. Stigma and shame act through norms, especially in communities where screening is seen as “taboo.” Empowerment strengthens control, lowering anxiety and supporting follow-through. For example, a woman may fear pain (attitude), feel cultural stigma (norms), but be reassured by an accessible home FIT kit (control). Evidence shows TPB is useful but limited. It predicts about 19–27% of health behaviour (McEachan et al., 2011), leaving an “intention–behaviour gap.” Critics argue it overlooks habits and emotions (Sniehotta et al., 2014). Recent work shows norms interact with attitudes and control (La Barbera & Ajzen, 2020, 2023).<!-- 2 years? also i think you missed this one and the Ajzen one above in your reference list --> Applications highlight its value: programs have improved screening attitudes, norms, and control when based on TPB (Huang et al., 2012). Overall, TPB highlights how attitudes, norms, and control interact with emotions in screening choices. '''Integration & comparison''' {| class="wikitable" |+ '''Table 2. Comparison of psychological theories and their relevance to cancer screening''' ! Model ! Key Constructs ! Role of Emotions ! Relevance to Screening |- | Health Belief Model (HBM) | Perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, self-efficacy, cues to action | Fear increases susceptibility and severity; anxiety can heighten barriers; relief strengthens perceived benefits | Explains why people weigh risks/benefits differently, leading some to avoid and others to attend screening |- | Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) | Threat appraisal (severity, vulnerability) and coping appraisal (response efficacy, self-efficacy, costs) | Fear appeals motivate only when coping appraisal is high; low efficacy leads to avoidance or denial | Shows why fear-based campaigns succeed or fail, depending on whether people believe they can act effectively |- | Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) | Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control | Emotions shape attitudes (fear vs relief), norms (stigma/shame), and control (empowerment/self-efficacy) | Captures the role of cultural stigma, empowerment, and social pressure in screening choices |} Taken together, these models provide a fuller picture of how emotions shape cancer screening behaviour. HBM highlights how people weigh personal risk against barriers. PMT explains why fear appeals succeed or backfire depending on whether people feel capable of coping. TPB adds the influence of social norms and perceived control. Together, they show that fear, anxiety, and relief can either motivate or deter action, depending on context. ==Strategies for addressing emotional barriers== '''Clear information & normalisation''' Clear, simple explanations reduce uncertainty and anxiety about screening. When people know what will happen and what results mean, the process feels less threatening. Framing screening as routine, like a dental check-up, helps normalise it and reduce stigma. By combining clarity with normalisation, screening becomes less of a fearful unknown and more of a standard habit that supports health.{{f}} '''Peer/community support''' Family, friends, and cultural groups strongly influence screening decisions. Seeing others screen, or hearing trusted stories, makes participation feel more acceptable. Shared experiences reduce embarrassment and help reshape social norms. Community programs that encourage open discussion, especially in groups where stigma is strong, show how collective support can turn screening from a private worry into a supported action.{{f}} '''Positive campaign messaging''' Campaigns framed around hope, empowerment, and reassurance often work better than fear appeals. Fear motivates only if people feel capable of acting; otherwise, it creates avoidance. Positive framing builds confidence and shows screening as a step toward peace of mind and control. By balancing risk information with encouragement, campaigns can transform screening into an empowering choice, not just a fearful obligation.{{f}} [[File:Doctor talking with a patient.jpg|thumb|right|300px]] '''Accessibility & ease''' Screening is more likely when it feels simple and convenient. Home kits, like the FIT test, allow privacy and control. Reminders texts, letters, GP prompts act as cues to action that keep it on people’s radar. Reducing costs, travel, and waiting times makes following through easier. When practical barriers are lowered, emotional ones like fear or embarrassment have less power to stop people.{{f}} '''Case study/example program''' Australia’s cervical cancer campaigns highlight how well-designed strategies work. By promoting HPV testing as safe, routine, and empowering, while making it widely accessible, participation improved. Pairing positive framing with practical supports reduced stigma and encouraged women to see screening as a normal part of protecting their health. == Quiz == <quiz display=simple shuffle=none> {Which of the following is an example of an emotional barrier to cancer screening? |type="()"} - Enjoyment of medical procedures + Fear of receiving a cancer diagnosis - Confidence in early detection programs {In the Health Belief Model, which factor refers to a person’s belief in their ability to take action? |type="()"} + Self-efficacy - Perceived severity - Social norms {Relief after receiving a clear screening result can influence behaviour by: |type="()"} + Encouraging people to attend future screenings - Making people less likely to trust doctors - Reducing the accuracy of screening tests {According to Protection Motivation Theory, fear will most likely motivate action when: |type="()"} + The person believes the recommended action will work and they can do it - The person avoids thinking about the threat - The threat is vague and the action feels difficult {Which emotion can act as both a motivator and a barrier to cancer screening? |type="()"} + Anxiety - Happiness - Anger </quiz> ==Conclusion== Fear and anxiety are double-edged, {{g}} they can motivate action but also create {{what}} avoidance. Relief, hope, and empowerment more consistently encourage {{what}} participation, especially when reinforced by supportive campaigns and accessible services. Screening behaviour is shaped by these emotions in clear ways. Fear and anxiety influence uptake by either pushing people to avoid or to act. Relief motivates screening by reducing uncertainty, though it risks false reassurance. Anxiety can serve as both a barrier and a motivator, depending on coping resources. Finally, some individuals act more quickly because confidence, social support, or cultural norms make screening feel both acceptable and achievable. Theories help explain these dynamics. The Health Belief Model highlights perceptions of risk, benefits, and barriers. Protection Motivation Theory shows how fear appeals only succeed when paired with strong coping efficacy. The Theory of Planned Behaviour captures the social side, where norms and perceived control shape intention. Together, they provide a fuller view of how emotions drive or deter screening. '''Key Takeaway''' To improve screening uptake, campaigns must not just minimise fear but reframe emotions as sources of reassurance, empowerment, and motivation for action. ==See also== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pain avoidance motivation|Pain avoidance motivation: How does avoidance of physical pain shape motivated action?]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Positive emotion and approach motivation|The motivational power of positivity:How do positive emotional states enhance goal pursuit and achievement Behaviours?]] [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Coping with anticipatory stress|Coping with anticipatory stress: What strategies are effective for managing stress about upcoming events?]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ahmed, N. U., Brewster, C., Chang-Martinez, C., Thomas-DeVlugt, L., & Rodriguez, A. (2022). Dignity, shame, stigma, or ignorance in avoidance of breast and cervical cancer screenings among women of Caribbean descent. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 10(5), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2022.105032 Ajzen, I. (2019). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.3107 Alyafei, A., & Easton-Carr, R. (2024). The health belief model of behavior change. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK606120/ Australian Government Department of Health. (2025). Screening for cancer. https://www.health.gov.au/topics/cancer/screening-for-cancer Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2022). BreastScreen Australia monitoring report 2022: Summary. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/breastscreen-australia-monitoring-report-2022/summary Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2025). National Bowel Cancer Screening Program monitoring report 2025: Summary. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/nbcsp-monitoring-2025/contents/summary Biardeau, X., Lam, O., Ba, V., Campeau, L., & Corcos, J. (2017). Prospective evaluation of anxiety, pain, and embarrassment associated with cystoscopy and urodynamic testing in clinical practice. Canadian Urological Association Journal, 11(3–4), 104. https://doi.org/10.5489/cuaj.4127 Cancer Treatment Centers of America. (n.d.). Stage 1 lung cancer. https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/lung-cancer/stages/stage-1-lung-cancer Conner, M., & Norman, P. (Eds.). (2015). Predicting and changing health behaviour: Research and practice with social cognition models (3rd ed.). Open University Press. Davison, B. J., & Degner, L. F. (1997). Empowerment of men newly diagnosed with prostate cancer. Cancer Nursing, 20(3), 187–196. https://journals.lww.com/cancernursingonline/fulltext/1997/06000/empowerment_of_men_newly_diagnosed_with_prostate.4.aspx Ebell, M. H., Thai, T. N., & Royalty, K. J. (2018). Cancer screening recommendations: An international comparison of high income countries. Public Health Reviews, 39, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-018-0080-0 Furedi, F. (2007). The only thing we have to fear is the ‘culture of fear’ itself: How human thought and action are being stifled by a regime of uncertainty. Spiked. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238082918 Furedi, F. (2018). How fear works: Culture of fear in the twenty-first century. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=P35ADwAAQBAJ Gressard, L., DeGroff, A. S., & Richards, T. B. (2017). A qualitative analysis of smokers’ perceptions about lung cancer screening. BMC Public Health, 17, 589. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4496-0 Huang, C. M., Chien, L. Y., Cheng, C. F., & Guo, J. L. (2012). Integrating life skills into a theory-based drug-use prevention program: Effectiveness among junior high students in Taiwan. Journal of School Health, 82(7), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2012.00706.x Isa, A., Muhamad, N. A., Mustapha, N., Abdul Mutalip, M. H., Mohd Royali, M. S., Baharin, M. F., & Sm, S. (2017). Association between self-efficacy and health behaviour in disease control: A systematic review. Global Journal of Health Science, 10(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v10n1p18 La Barbera, F., & Ajzen, I. (2020). Control interactions in the theory of planned behavior: Rethinking the role of subjective norm. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 401–417. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.2056 Marteau, T. M. (1990). Screening in practice: Reducing the psychological costs. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 301(6742), 26–28. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.301.6742.26 McEachan, R. R. C., Conner, M., Taylor, N. J., & Lawton, R. J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(2), 97–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2010.521684 National Breast Cancer Foundation. (n.d.). Breast cancer statistics. https://nbcf.org.au/about-breast-cancer/breast-cancer-stats/ National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Cervical cancer—Cancer stat facts. https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/survival National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). What screening statistics mean. https://www.cancer.gov/aboutcancer/screening/research/what-screening-statistics-mean Open Lab. (n.d.). Protection motivation theory. Newcastle University. https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/10/protection-motivation-theory/ Ruiter, R. A. C., Abraham, C., & Kok, G. (2001). Scary warnings and rational precautions: A review of the psychology of fear appeals. Psychology & Health, 16(6), 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440108405863 Sniehotta, F. F., Presseau, J., & Araújo-Soares, V. (2014). Time to retire the theory of planned behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 8(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2013.869710 Zeliadt, S. B., Heffner, J. L., Sayre, G., et al. (2015). Attitudes and perceptions about smoking cessation in the context of lung cancer screening. JAMA Internal Medicine, 175(9), 1530–1537. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.3558 }} ==External links== • [https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cancer-screening Better Health Channel] – Cancer screening (Better Health Channel) • [https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/early-detection-and-screening Cancer Council Australia] – Early detection and screening (Cancer Council Australia) • [https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/screening/research/what-screening-statistics-mean National Cancer Institute] – What screening statistics mean (National Cancer Institute) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Cancer]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 63k4ct223c25b1phh5rodvwi9ufv8o5 0 322623 2823479 2819619 2026-08-20T03:54:46Z ~2026-45683-78 3108575 Editing notes 2823479 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and social media use:<br>How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?}}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{robelbox|theme=13|title=Scenario: ...|iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Test content using a default box with theme=2 ''Image: Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif from Wikimedia Commons by Videoplasty.com, CC-BY-SA 4.0'' </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Social media icons (rubin-Social-media-icons-2x).tiff|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Social media networks. ''(Author note: Alternatively use image of person using social medi''|right]] '''Consider this scenario''' You’re taking a quick study break and plan to make a cup of tea. While the kettle boils, you hear a ding and check an Instagram notification, replying to a friend and feeling briefly connected (see Figure 1). You spot a reel on psychology and self-determination theory and choose to watch, telling yourself it’s still related to your studies. But then the algorithm pulls you in. Psychology reels lead to study hacks, then lifestyle tips, then memes, then sheep jumping in fields. You come across a scrolling check-in video and quickly swipe down to keep scrolling. You stop noticing what you're choosing. Thirty minutes pass. Your tea is cold. You started in control, with purpose and feeling connected. Now it’s unclear what you were looking for and you feel less motivated to study. You didn’t mean to spend so long. Where did the time go? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter explores [[w:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT) and how basic psychological needs (BPNs) according to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|basic psychological need theory]] (BPNT) can explain patterns of social media engagement. Social media is becoming increasingly intertwined with (deeply <u>embedded in</u>) everyday life, influencing how people communicate, relate <u>(to one another),</u> and see the world and themselves/present themselves <u>--> and at a fundamental level how people think, feel, and act/behave</u> (<u>ref</u>). * Pervasiveness of social media. Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, influencing how people connect, communicate, and present themselves. * The problem. While social media offers benefits like connection and self-expression, it is also linked to negative outcomes such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor well-being, particularly with excessive or unbalanced use. * The need for psychological science. Understanding why people engage with social media and how it affects their mental health requires a psychological science perspective with relevant theories and evidence explaining the link between social media, motivation and well-being. * Introduction to Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a well-established motivation theory that helps explain human behaviour by focusing on the satisfaction of three core psychological needs. * Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT). A mini-theory of SDT, BPNT identifies three universal psychological needs: Autonomy (the need to feel in control), competence (the need to feel capable and effective), and relatedness (the need to feel socially connected and a sense of belonging) (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). These BPNs are drivers of human behaviour and motivation. * How social media interacts with these needs. Social media can support these needs. It can also frustrate them (e.g. comparison or social pressure) * The role of design. Social media platforms are intentionally designed to engage users by targeting these psychological needs * Why this matters. Applying SDT offers a deeper understanding of social media engagement and highlights ways to promote healthier, more intentional use that supports well-being. * [[psychological needs]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being? * What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement? * What is self-determination theory? * What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory? * How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{RoundBoxBottom}}{{robelbox|theme=6|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being? * What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement? * What is self-determination theory? * What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory? * How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Social media, motivation and well-being == '''Focus question''': What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being? Global prevalence of social media and integration into daily lives. The evolving landscape of digital technology including social media, also called social network sites (SNS), means virtual realms are increasingly integrated into everyday life and create new pathways for engagement and interaction. Excessive social media use poses significant concerns and consequences at individual and societal levels. Distinguish between social media use and [[w:Problematic_social_media_use|problematic social media use]] which is associated with internet addiction disorder, a form of behavioural addiction (ref). * Social media use is directly linked to screentime use as well as smartphone use. Statistics show social media is primarily accessed via smartphones (references). To find out more check out this chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|mobile phone use motivation]]. * ''Author note: Expand on or link to issues of social media engagement and patterns of engagement. Focus on how social media impacts wellbeing and the psychological impacts of social media use.'' * There is a growing body of research examining the relationship between social media and well-being with motivation a key element linking drivers of social media engagement. Need for research using theoretical frameworks. * Social relationships are at the heart of social media. These platforms were designed to help people communicate, stay in touch with friends and family, and share information. While their original purpose may have been to support social connection, social media has since evolved into a powerful tool with an attention-based based business model (Montag et al., 2021). * Studies have shown social media can have both a positive and negative impact on well-being (Parent, 2023; West et al., 2024). Understanding what motivates people to use social media is critical to understanding how social media impacts well-being and what can be done to promote healthy social media use. * [[Motivation]] is the energy for action (Ed Deci...)... quality of behavior not quantity of behavior * The average person spends 145 minutes per day on social media (ref). * Short-form videos are the most engaging content form on social media often being under 1 minute in length, capture attention due to bite-sized format (ref) * Majority social media users access social media via mobile phones, increasing social medias accessibility and prevalence in everyday life. * Demographic youth and young adult's social media usage skewed toward younger demographics with * "Correlation between social media and depression for adolescents" Time spent e.g. "Adolescents who spend more than 3 hours a day have an increased risk of mental health struggles." * Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation --> link to BPNs and intrinsic motivation<br /> == The psychology behind social media design and patterns of engagement == [[File:Social media integration and central role in everyday life - media networks and connection.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #.''' Intergration and central role of social media in everyday life. Social media is increasingly becoming interwoven with everyday life, social connection and belongin]]'''Focus question:''' What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement? * Understanding the psychology behind social media design is important as it informs patterns of social media engagement and the psychological processes social media is designed to act on. * ''Author note: Research more into psychological processes and possibly principles behind social media design and that are targeted when people use social media. While potentially not necessary, this section provides the opportunity to expand on the problem, how social media is closely, possibly intrinsically, linked to psychology and psychological science, briefly look at how other theories or aspects of motivation relate to social media, and lead into why self-determination theory and BPNT is a suitable (or the best/ideal) lens through which explain patterns of social media engagement.'' === Social media design === * Social media is intentionally designed to capture one's/people's attention and hold it for as long as possible and includes addictive features (Montag et al., 2019). * Also consider physiological and neurological processes that social media is designed to engage e.g. dopamine cycle * Reward-seeking, social validation etc. * Discuss theoretical and psychological underpinnings behind social media design and how it connects with psychological science, self-determination theory, BPNT, motivation and therefore why psychology can be used to understand engagement patterns. --> ''potentially move above self-determination theory section'' === Patterns of social media engagement === * Social media engagement is multi-dimensional and concerns affective, cognitive, and behaviour dimensions (Trunfio and Rossi, 2021). * The Consumer Online Brand Related Activities Model (COBRA) is a conceptual tool used to classify and interpret social media engagement with brands and differentiates between three levels: consumption, contribution and creation (Schivinski et al., 2016). These levels of social media engagement encompass various actions including viewing, liking, sharing, commenting, and content creation (Trufino & Rossi, 2021). * Expand on problematic social media use compared to healthy patterns of social media engagement. * ''Author note: Potentially split this section between sections: Social media, motivation and well-being AND basic psychological needs and social media engagement.'' == Self-determination theory == '''Focus question:''' What is self-determination theory?[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory.|400x400px]][[Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is a key theory of [[w:Motivation|motivation]], playing a central role in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and empirical studies on motivation (Ryan et al., 2021). SDT highlights human capacities and innate resources for behavioural self-regulation and personality development (Ryan et al., 2021). * A key component of self-determination theory is the sub-theory basic psychological need theory (see Figure 2). * SDT was first developed by Ryan and Deci and has since been widely used in research and evidence-based application across diverse fields such as health care, education, work, sport, technology use, psychotherapy, parenting, developmental and organisation psychology (Ryan et al., 2021). * SDT is a well-established and robust theory, recognised for its universality/as a universal theory across cultures and domains (Ryan et al., 2021). Multi-dimensional wellbeing framework. * SDT divides motivation into two categories: [[w:Intrinsic_motivation|intrinsic motivation]] and [[w:Extrinsic_motivation|extrinsic motivation]] (Ryan et al., 2021). * Autonomous (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation. * Possibly include figure of "Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation" (see Figure 3). * Motivation is the and is related to activation and intention (Ryan & Deci, 2000). * SDT is comprised of six mini-theories: cognitive evaluation theory (CET), organismic integration theory (OIT), causality orientations theory (COT), basic psychological needs theory (BPNT), goal contents theory (GCT), and relationships motivation theory (RMT) (Ryan & Deci, 2017). [[File:Amp-55-1-68-fig1a.gif|center|thumb|758x758px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation. ]] == Basic psychological need theory == '''Focus question:''' What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory? Basic psychological need theory (BPNT) is a mini theory/sub-theory within the SDT framework (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNT posits humans have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000) (see Figure 4). Psychological needs are critical resources underlying the inherent desires to engage with the environmental to advance personal growth, social development, self-organisation, and psychological well-being (Reeve, 2018; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). According to BPNT BPNs are universal and must be satisfied for <u>(are crucial to)</u> optimal well-being and performance, and if unsatisfied leads to negative consequences such as ill-being (Ryan et al., 2021). BPNT emphasises the importance of creating optimal circumstances to support peoples' basic psychological needs, with social and sociocultural contexts being a key/the main avenue for nurturing or thwarting needs (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNs drive human behaviour being intrinsically linked to motivation. According to BPNT, a need must meet nine conceptual and empirical criteria. The basic criteria dictate a need must be psychological, essential, inherent, distinct, and universal. The associated criteria state a need must also be pervasive, content-specific, directional, and explanatory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).[[File:Basic needs.png|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of basic psychological needs. "'''Figure 1'''. The three basic psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory are considered essential ingredients for intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being."]] * Ryan and Deci (2000) define basic needs as energising states which when satisfied contribute toward health and well-being, however if unsatisfied lead to ill-being. * BPNT initially * "Drivers of human action essential for psychological growth and activity" * Basic needs drive behaviour in order to satisfy/fulfill said needs. * "Basic psychological needs important motivational tools..." * BPNT relevant in social and non-social contexts. * Universal psychological nutrients (Ryan & Deci, 2017). * "Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Lecture 4)" === Autonomy === Autonomy refers to the psychological need to experience willingness, volition, and self-organisation (Ryan et al., 2021; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). "...refers to the capacity to make informed and independent decisions." * Autonomy is satisfied when actions, thoughts and feelings are self-endorsed and authentic creating the experience of integrity (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * Autonomy is frustrated when conflict or pressure is felt that opposes one volition (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * Autonomy support: their perspective, self-initiation, choice, explore, and rationale. === Competence === * Competence is the psychological need to experience effectiveness and mastery (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * "...ability to do task effectively and efficiently.. improves task performance --> task mastery. * Competence is satisfied when one is able to utilise and develop skills and expertise (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). "...engaging in activities on can make use of their skills and expertise." * Competence is frustrated by experiences of failure, ineffectiveness, and helplessness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). === Relatedness === * Relatedness refers to is the psychological need to experience bonding, care, and warmth from others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * "..need for connection, satisfied through bonding and care." * Relatedness is closely tied to relationships and social connection and is satisfied by feeling connected to others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). *Relatedness is frustrated by social exclusion, social alienation, and loneliness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * == Basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration == * Expression of basic psychological needs varies across cultures due to the internalisation and integration of cultural values and behaviours facilitating need satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2000). * Need satisfaction is foundational for wellness and healthy functioning (Ryan et al., 2021). * Need frustration is detrimental to well-being and diminishes integrity (Ryan et al., 2021). === Need satisfaction and need support === * SDT and BPNT are primarily concerned with fostering human growth and wellness through need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * The satisfaction of basic needs is facilitated by need supportive environments and promotes wellness, the development of inner resources, and resilience (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * Satisfaction's role in motivation is to energise and sustain intrinsic motivation and internalisation (Ryan et al., 2021). === Need frustration and need thwarting === * Need frustration and need thwarting are associated with negative outcomes such as ill-being, self-control breakdowns, constricted functioning, externalising problems and increased defensive and immoral functioning (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * "...emotional response to opposition." * Need frustration and need thwarting are worse than the absence of need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * Needs frustration diminishes the energisation and sustenance of intrinsic motivation and internalisation, and elicits defiance (Ryan et al., 2021). {{robelbox|theme=9|title=Test your knowledge|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Basic psychological need theory says that humans have three basic needs that are essential for motivation and well-being. Which of the following is not one of these three needs? |type="()"} + Confidence - Autonomy {Imagine someone shares an idea for a group project and others in the group ignore them or talk over them. Is this likely to support or thwart their need for relatedness? |type="()"} - Support + Thwart </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Basic psychological needs and social media engagement == '''Focus question:''' How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? BPNT can help explain patterns of social media engagement... (ref). Social media creates unique social contexts which Different factors of social media engagement can contribute to basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration including intra-personal, inter-personal, situational and environmental factors (West et al., 2024) The first scoping review examining the relationship between social media use and well-being in adolescents through a SDT lens found social media use can be both beneficial and detrimental to satisfying basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (West et al., 2024). Figure # represents how engagement with social media can satisfy BPNs supporting well-being, performance, and growth, however unfulfilled needs are not conducive for individuals to thrive. *Table 1 shows examples of {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Case study: ...|iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Case study information * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations Include text and image (see Figure 1). </div> {{Robelbox/close}} [[File:Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt raw.png|left|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #''': Impact of social media use on mental health and basic psychological needs. Plants represent thriving and fulfillment of needs vs frustration of needs ([[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0|Mercy Canning, CC BY-SA 4.0]], via Wikimedia Commons).]] === Autonomy and social media engagement === * Social media supports autonomy by creating a ''(enabling one to experience a)'' sense of control, self-governance and personal agency (West et al., 2024). * Social media has the potential to influence autonomy through identity development (West et al., 2024). * Social media can challenge and threaten autonomy as choices and actions may be constrained or limited and individuals may be susceptible to other people's actions such as controlling behaviours (West et al., 2024). * Expand on need satisfaction and support for autonomy *Expand on need frustration and thwarting for autonomy Passive social media use is associated with lower autonomy and ill-being (ref) === Competence and social media engagement === * Sense of self can be positively or negatively impacted by social media (West et al., 2024). Areas related to sense of self that may be influenced by social media include self-esteem, confidence, self-concept, social competence... * Other areas impacted by social media include learning, digital competence (West et al., 2024). * The impact of social media on competence is consistent with other basic psychological needs in that social media may support or thwart competence (West et al., 2024) * A study by West, Rice and Vell-Brodick (2023) found social media contributes to adolescent's experience of unique challenges regarding competence and identified two broad themes: cultivating competence and constraining competence. * Expand on need satisfaction and support for competence *Expand on need frustration and thwarting for competence [[File:Social media positive & negative effects on mental health & well-being.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure ##.''' Description.]] === Relatedness and social media engagement === * Social media plays a key role in satisfying and frustrating the basic psychological need of relatedness (West et al., 2024). * Social media may be used to experience a sense of belonging and acceptance (West et al., 2024). * Social media enables parasocial relationships. Social media can support well-being when used for self-disclosure. *Expand on need satisfaction and support for relatedness *Expand on need frustration and thwarting for relatedness *(see Table 1) organise and summarise info '''Table 1.''' Basic Psychological Needs Role in Motivation and Influence on Social Media Patterns of Engagement {| class="wikitable" !Basic psychological need element !Role in motivation !Applied to social media engagement |- |[[w:Autonomy|'''Autonomy''']] | | |- |'''[[w:Competence|Competence]]''' | | |- |'''Relatedness''' |Social connection * * | |} ''Author note: Either incorporate need satisfaction and frustration under related basic need level 1 sub-headings as two separate paragraphs (with or without level 2 sub-heading) OR create new major heading addressing need satisfaction and frustration. However, basic psychological needs explaining social media use naturally addresses satisfaction and frustration while explain how each basic need is related to social media. Consider structuring paragraphs under level 1 sub-heading by topic rather than needs satisfaction and frustration e.g. different types of competence social media influences such as sense of self and digital competence.'' ''Author note:'' Potentially add case studies or examples of patterns of social media use explained by basic psychological needs for key age groups across the lifespan. Alternatively, case studies or examples in different environments/contexts. * Case study on youth/adolescents * Case study on university students * Case study on adults or elderly adults If you are feeling ..., check out the chapter on about ...(link).{{robelbox|theme=13|title=Scenario: ...|iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Test content using a default box with theme=2 </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ''Author note: Potentially add additional major heading and section focused on action orientated tips for healthy social media use that satisfies and supports basic needs and wellness.'' '''How to engage with social media to promote health and well-being through satisfaction of basic psychological needs''' * Limiting social media use * Use social media as an avenue for connection with friends and family while also prioritising connection with others in real-life face-to-face ways. * Setting clear goals and motives for social media use * Using social media as a creative outlet * If you get struck '''Potential solutions?''' "Limiting social media time, increasing media literacy and redesigning platforms might be keys to healthier digital interactions to counter this troubling trend. (Forbes)." ==Conclusion== * Social media use is a prevalent part of daily life for many people. Linked to increase in technology. * SDT, specifically BPNT, helps explain social media patterns of engagement. * Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, offering opportunities to connect, express, and engage, but it also brings significant risks to mental health and well-being. * Psychological science, particularly SDT and BPNT, helps explain the complex relationship between social media, motivation, and well-being. According to BPNT, all humans have three basic psychological needs which are essential for psychological wellness and optimal performance: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * Social media can support these needs by allowing users to make choices, build skills, and feel connected. However, it can also frustrate or thwart these needs, such as when users experience pressure, comparison, exclusion, or lack of control. * The psychological processes behind social media design act on these basic needs and influence patterns of engagement that may feel rewarding but can become problematic over time. * Understanding underlying mechanisms of social media can help individuals and society make more informed, intentional decisions about how to engage with social media. * Rather than framing social media as entirely good or bad, SDT provides a lens through which to understand its effects. * Supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness is key to promoting healthy, self-determined social media use and enhancing overall well-being in a digital world. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}'''Take-home messages''' * Message{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) - TBC if keep* * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Frustration of basic psychological needs|Frustration of basic psychological needs]] (Book chapter, 2021) - TBC if keep* * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|Mobile phone use motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Grubbs, J. B., Tóth-Király, I., Nagy, L., Koós, M., Kraus, S. W., Demetrovics, Z., Potenza, M. N., Ballester-Arnal, R., Batthyány, D., Bergeron, S., Billieux, J., Briken, P., Burkauskas, J., Cárdenas-López, G., Carvalho, J., Castro-Calvo, J., Chen, L., Strong, C., Ciocca, G., … Bőthe, B. (2025). Basic psychological needs satisfaction: An international examination of invariance across 22 languages and 32 countries. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''49''(5), 552–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-025-10151-z Montag, C., Lachmann, B., Herrlich, M., & Zweig, K. (2019). Addictive features of social media/messenger platforms and freemium games against the background of psychological and economic theories. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''16''(14), 2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142612 Parent, N. (2023). Basic need satisfaction through social media engagement: A developmental framework for understanding adolescent social media use. ''Human Development'', ''67''(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000529449 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''The American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. The Guildford Press. Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2021). Building a science of motivated persons: Self-determination theory’s empirical approach to human experience and the regulation of behavior. ''Motivation Science'', ''7''(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000194 Schivinski, B., Christodoulides, G., & Dabrowski, D. (2016). Measuring consumers’ engagement with brand-related social-media content. ''Journal of Advertising Research'', ''56''(1), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2016-004 Trunfio, M., & Rossi, S. (2021). Conceptualising and measuring social media engagement: A systematic literature review. ''Italian Journal of Marketing'', ''2021''(3), 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43039-021-00035-8 Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration'', ''23''(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359 Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1 West, M., Rice, S., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2023). Adolescent social media use: Cultivating and constraining competence. ''International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being'', ''18''(1), 2277623. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2023.2277623 West, M., Rice, S., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2024). Adolescent social media use through a self-determination theory lens: A systematic scoping review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''21''(7), 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070862 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://wearesocial.com/uk/blog/2025/10/digital-2026-global-overview-report/ Digital 2026 global overview report] (We Are Social) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/margaret_gould_stewart_how_giant_websites_design_for_you_and_a_billion_others_too?referrer=playlist-how_did_the_internet_take_over_our_lives&autoplay=true How giant websites design for you (and a billion others, too), Margaret Gould Stewart] (TED Talk, 2014) - TBC keep* * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/Social-media Social media and mental health] (Beyond Blue) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4TMPXK9tw5U The battle for your time: Exposing the costs of social media, Dino Ambrosi] (TEDx Laguna Blanca School, 2023) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I&t=2s Promoting motivation, health, and excellence, Ed Deci] (TEDx Flour City, 2012) - TBC keep* * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6fm1gt5YAM Edward Deci - Self-determination theory] (The Brainwaves Video Anthology, 2017) - TBC keep* [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social media]] snw6ejsda2asaytexoizn2vyi07vz1x 2823489 2823479 2026-08-20T04:09:53Z GraceInMind 3005521 /* Overview */ 2823489 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Self-determination theory and social media use:<br>How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?}}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{robelbox|theme=13|title=Scenario: ...|iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Test content using a default box with theme=2 </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} [[File:Social media icons (rubin-Social-media-icons-2x).tiff|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Social media networks. ''(Author note: Alternatively use image of person using social medi''|right]] '''Consider this scenario''' You’re taking a quick study break and plan to make a cup of tea. While the kettle boils, you hear a ding and check an Instagram notification, replying to a friend and feeling briefly connected (see Figure 1). You spot a reel on psychology and self-determination theory and choose to watch, telling yourself it’s still related to your studies. But then the algorithm pulls you in. Psychology reels lead to study hacks, then lifestyle tips, then memes, then sheep jumping in fields. You come across a scrolling check-in video and quickly swipe down to keep scrolling. You stop noticing what you're choosing. Thirty minutes pass. Your tea is cold. You started in control, with purpose and feeling connected. Now it’s unclear what you were looking for and you feel less motivated to study. You didn’t mean to spend so long. Where did the time go? {{RoundBoxBottom}} This chapter explores [[w:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT) and how basic psychological needs (BPNs) according to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|basic psychological need theory]] (BPNT) can explain patterns of social media engagement. Social media is becoming increasingly intertwined with (deeply <u>embedded in</u>) everyday life, influencing how people communicate, relate <u>(to one another),</u> and see the world and themselves/present themselves <u>--> and at a fundamental level how people think, feel, and act/behave</u> (<u>ref</u>). * Pervasiveness of social media. Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, influencing how people connect, communicate, and present themselves. * The problem. While social media offers benefits like connection and self-expression, it is also linked to negative outcomes such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor well-being, particularly with excessive or unbalanced use. * The need for psychological science. Understanding why people engage with social media and how it affects their mental health requires a psychological science perspective with relevant theories and evidence explaining the link between social media, motivation and well-being. * Introduction to Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a well-established motivation theory that helps explain human behaviour by focusing on the satisfaction of three core psychological needs. * Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT). A mini-theory of SDT, BPNT identifies three universal psychological needs: Autonomy (the need to feel in control), competence (the need to feel capable and effective), and relatedness (the need to feel socially connected and a sense of belonging) (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). These BPNs are drivers of human behaviour and motivation. * How social media interacts with these needs. Social media can support these needs. It can also frustrate them (e.g. comparison or social pressure) * The role of design. Social media platforms are intentionally designed to engage users by targeting these psychological needs * Why this matters. Applying SDT offers a deeper understanding of social media engagement and highlights ways to promote healthier, more intentional use that supports well-being. * [[psychological needs]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Focus questions''' * What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being? * What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement? * What is self-determination theory? * What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory? * How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{RoundBoxBottom}}{{robelbox|theme=6|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being? * What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement? * What is self-determination theory? * What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory? * How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Social media, motivation and well-being == '''Focus question''': What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being? Global prevalence of social media and integration into daily lives. The evolving landscape of digital technology including social media, also called social network sites (SNS), means virtual realms are increasingly integrated into everyday life and create new pathways for engagement and interaction. Excessive social media use poses significant concerns and consequences at individual and societal levels. Distinguish between social media use and [[w:Problematic_social_media_use|problematic social media use]] which is associated with internet addiction disorder, a form of behavioural addiction (ref). * Social media use is directly linked to screentime use as well as smartphone use. Statistics show social media is primarily accessed via smartphones (references). To find out more check out this chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|mobile phone use motivation]]. * ''Author note: Expand on or link to issues of social media engagement and patterns of engagement. Focus on how social media impacts wellbeing and the psychological impacts of social media use.'' * There is a growing body of research examining the relationship between social media and well-being with motivation a key element linking drivers of social media engagement. Need for research using theoretical frameworks. * Social relationships are at the heart of social media. These platforms were designed to help people communicate, stay in touch with friends and family, and share information. While their original purpose may have been to support social connection, social media has since evolved into a powerful tool with an attention-based based business model (Montag et al., 2021). * Studies have shown social media can have both a positive and negative impact on well-being (Parent, 2023; West et al., 2024). Understanding what motivates people to use social media is critical to understanding how social media impacts well-being and what can be done to promote healthy social media use. * [[Motivation]] is the energy for action (Ed Deci...)... quality of behavior not quantity of behavior * The average person spends 145 minutes per day on social media (ref). * Short-form videos are the most engaging content form on social media often being under 1 minute in length, capture attention due to bite-sized format (ref) * Majority social media users access social media via mobile phones, increasing social medias accessibility and prevalence in everyday life. * Demographic youth and young adult's social media usage skewed toward younger demographics with * "Correlation between social media and depression for adolescents" Time spent e.g. "Adolescents who spend more than 3 hours a day have an increased risk of mental health struggles." * Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation --> link to BPNs and intrinsic motivation<br /> == The psychology behind social media design and patterns of engagement == [[File:Social media integration and central role in everyday life - media networks and connection.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #.''' Intergration and central role of social media in everyday life. Social media is increasingly becoming interwoven with everyday life, social connection and belongin]]'''Focus question:''' What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement? * Understanding the psychology behind social media design is important as it informs patterns of social media engagement and the psychological processes social media is designed to act on. * ''Author note: Research more into psychological processes and possibly principles behind social media design and that are targeted when people use social media. While potentially not necessary, this section provides the opportunity to expand on the problem, how social media is closely, possibly intrinsically, linked to psychology and psychological science, briefly look at how other theories or aspects of motivation relate to social media, and lead into why self-determination theory and BPNT is a suitable (or the best/ideal) lens through which explain patterns of social media engagement.'' === Social media design === * Social media is intentionally designed to capture one's/people's attention and hold it for as long as possible and includes addictive features (Montag et al., 2019). * Also consider physiological and neurological processes that social media is designed to engage e.g. dopamine cycle * Reward-seeking, social validation etc. * Discuss theoretical and psychological underpinnings behind social media design and how it connects with psychological science, self-determination theory, BPNT, motivation and therefore why psychology can be used to understand engagement patterns. --> ''potentially move above self-determination theory section'' === Patterns of social media engagement === * Social media engagement is multi-dimensional and concerns affective, cognitive, and behaviour dimensions (Trunfio and Rossi, 2021). * The Consumer Online Brand Related Activities Model (COBRA) is a conceptual tool used to classify and interpret social media engagement with brands and differentiates between three levels: consumption, contribution and creation (Schivinski et al., 2016). These levels of social media engagement encompass various actions including viewing, liking, sharing, commenting, and content creation (Trufino & Rossi, 2021). * Expand on problematic social media use compared to healthy patterns of social media engagement. * ''Author note: Potentially split this section between sections: Social media, motivation and well-being AND basic psychological needs and social media engagement.'' == Self-determination theory == '''Focus question:''' What is self-determination theory?[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory.|400x400px]][[Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is a key theory of [[w:Motivation|motivation]], playing a central role in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and empirical studies on motivation (Ryan et al., 2021). SDT highlights human capacities and innate resources for behavioural self-regulation and personality development (Ryan et al., 2021). * A key component of self-determination theory is the sub-theory basic psychological need theory (see Figure 2). * SDT was first developed by Ryan and Deci and has since been widely used in research and evidence-based application across diverse fields such as health care, education, work, sport, technology use, psychotherapy, parenting, developmental and organisation psychology (Ryan et al., 2021). * SDT is a well-established and robust theory, recognised for its universality/as a universal theory across cultures and domains (Ryan et al., 2021). Multi-dimensional wellbeing framework. * SDT divides motivation into two categories: [[w:Intrinsic_motivation|intrinsic motivation]] and [[w:Extrinsic_motivation|extrinsic motivation]] (Ryan et al., 2021). * Autonomous (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation. * Possibly include figure of "Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation" (see Figure 3). * Motivation is the and is related to activation and intention (Ryan & Deci, 2000). * SDT is comprised of six mini-theories: cognitive evaluation theory (CET), organismic integration theory (OIT), causality orientations theory (COT), basic psychological needs theory (BPNT), goal contents theory (GCT), and relationships motivation theory (RMT) (Ryan & Deci, 2017). [[File:Amp-55-1-68-fig1a.gif|center|thumb|758x758px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation. ]] == Basic psychological need theory == '''Focus question:''' What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory? Basic psychological need theory (BPNT) is a mini theory/sub-theory within the SDT framework (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNT posits humans have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000) (see Figure 4). Psychological needs are critical resources underlying the inherent desires to engage with the environmental to advance personal growth, social development, self-organisation, and psychological well-being (Reeve, 2018; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). According to BPNT BPNs are universal and must be satisfied for <u>(are crucial to)</u> optimal well-being and performance, and if unsatisfied leads to negative consequences such as ill-being (Ryan et al., 2021). BPNT emphasises the importance of creating optimal circumstances to support peoples' basic psychological needs, with social and sociocultural contexts being a key/the main avenue for nurturing or thwarting needs (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNs drive human behaviour being intrinsically linked to motivation. According to BPNT, a need must meet nine conceptual and empirical criteria. The basic criteria dictate a need must be psychological, essential, inherent, distinct, and universal. The associated criteria state a need must also be pervasive, content-specific, directional, and explanatory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).[[File:Basic needs.png|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of basic psychological needs. "'''Figure 1'''. The three basic psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory are considered essential ingredients for intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being."]] * Ryan and Deci (2000) define basic needs as energising states which when satisfied contribute toward health and well-being, however if unsatisfied lead to ill-being. * BPNT initially * "Drivers of human action essential for psychological growth and activity" * Basic needs drive behaviour in order to satisfy/fulfill said needs. * "Basic psychological needs important motivational tools..." * BPNT relevant in social and non-social contexts. * Universal psychological nutrients (Ryan & Deci, 2017). * "Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Lecture 4)" === Autonomy === Autonomy refers to the psychological need to experience willingness, volition, and self-organisation (Ryan et al., 2021; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). "...refers to the capacity to make informed and independent decisions." * Autonomy is satisfied when actions, thoughts and feelings are self-endorsed and authentic creating the experience of integrity (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * Autonomy is frustrated when conflict or pressure is felt that opposes one volition (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * Autonomy support: their perspective, self-initiation, choice, explore, and rationale. === Competence === * Competence is the psychological need to experience effectiveness and mastery (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * "...ability to do task effectively and efficiently.. improves task performance --> task mastery. * Competence is satisfied when one is able to utilise and develop skills and expertise (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). "...engaging in activities on can make use of their skills and expertise." * Competence is frustrated by experiences of failure, ineffectiveness, and helplessness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). === Relatedness === * Relatedness refers to is the psychological need to experience bonding, care, and warmth from others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * "..need for connection, satisfied through bonding and care." * Relatedness is closely tied to relationships and social connection and is satisfied by feeling connected to others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). *Relatedness is frustrated by social exclusion, social alienation, and loneliness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). * == Basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration == * Expression of basic psychological needs varies across cultures due to the internalisation and integration of cultural values and behaviours facilitating need satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2000). * Need satisfaction is foundational for wellness and healthy functioning (Ryan et al., 2021). * Need frustration is detrimental to well-being and diminishes integrity (Ryan et al., 2021). === Need satisfaction and need support === * SDT and BPNT are primarily concerned with fostering human growth and wellness through need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * The satisfaction of basic needs is facilitated by need supportive environments and promotes wellness, the development of inner resources, and resilience (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * Satisfaction's role in motivation is to energise and sustain intrinsic motivation and internalisation (Ryan et al., 2021). === Need frustration and need thwarting === * Need frustration and need thwarting are associated with negative outcomes such as ill-being, self-control breakdowns, constricted functioning, externalising problems and increased defensive and immoral functioning (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * "...emotional response to opposition." * Need frustration and need thwarting are worse than the absence of need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). * Needs frustration diminishes the energisation and sustenance of intrinsic motivation and internalisation, and elicits defiance (Ryan et al., 2021). {{robelbox|theme=9|title=Test your knowledge|iconwidth=55px|icon=Search-icon-white-background.png}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Basic psychological need theory says that humans have three basic needs that are essential for motivation and well-being. Which of the following is not one of these three needs? |type="()"} + Confidence - Autonomy {Imagine someone shares an idea for a group project and others in the group ignore them or talk over them. Is this likely to support or thwart their need for relatedness? |type="()"} - Support + Thwart </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Basic psychological needs and social media engagement == '''Focus question:''' How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? BPNT can help explain patterns of social media engagement... (ref). Social media creates unique social contexts which Different factors of social media engagement can contribute to basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration including intra-personal, inter-personal, situational and environmental factors (West et al., 2024) The first scoping review examining the relationship between social media use and well-being in adolescents through a SDT lens found social media use can be both beneficial and detrimental to satisfying basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (West et al., 2024). Figure # represents how engagement with social media can satisfy BPNs supporting well-being, performance, and growth, however unfulfilled needs are not conducive for individuals to thrive. *Table 1 shows examples of {{robelbox|theme=11|title=Case study: ...|iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Case study information * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations Include text and image (see Figure 1). </div> {{Robelbox/close}} [[File:Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt raw.png|left|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #''': Impact of social media use on mental health and basic psychological needs. Plants represent thriving and fulfillment of needs vs frustration of needs ([[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0|Mercy Canning, CC BY-SA 4.0]], via Wikimedia Commons).]] === Autonomy and social media engagement === * Social media supports autonomy by creating a ''(enabling one to experience a)'' sense of control, self-governance and personal agency (West et al., 2024). * Social media has the potential to influence autonomy through identity development (West et al., 2024). * Social media can challenge and threaten autonomy as choices and actions may be constrained or limited and individuals may be susceptible to other people's actions such as controlling behaviours (West et al., 2024). * Expand on need satisfaction and support for autonomy *Expand on need frustration and thwarting for autonomy Passive social media use is associated with lower autonomy and ill-being (ref) === Competence and social media engagement === * Sense of self can be positively or negatively impacted by social media (West et al., 2024). Areas related to sense of self that may be influenced by social media include self-esteem, confidence, self-concept, social competence... * Other areas impacted by social media include learning, digital competence (West et al., 2024). * The impact of social media on competence is consistent with other basic psychological needs in that social media may support or thwart competence (West et al., 2024) * A study by West, Rice and Vell-Brodick (2023) found social media contributes to adolescent's experience of unique challenges regarding competence and identified two broad themes: cultivating competence and constraining competence. * Expand on need satisfaction and support for competence *Expand on need frustration and thwarting for competence [[File:Social media positive & negative effects on mental health & well-being.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure ##.''' Description.]] === Relatedness and social media engagement === * Social media plays a key role in satisfying and frustrating the basic psychological need of relatedness (West et al., 2024). * Social media may be used to experience a sense of belonging and acceptance (West et al., 2024). * Social media enables parasocial relationships. Social media can support well-being when used for self-disclosure. *Expand on need satisfaction and support for relatedness *Expand on need frustration and thwarting for relatedness *(see Table 1) organise and summarise info '''Table 1.''' Basic Psychological Needs Role in Motivation and Influence on Social Media Patterns of Engagement {| class="wikitable" !Basic psychological need element !Role in motivation !Applied to social media engagement |- |[[w:Autonomy|'''Autonomy''']] | | |- |'''[[w:Competence|Competence]]''' | | |- |'''Relatedness''' |Social connection * * | |} ''Author note: Either incorporate need satisfaction and frustration under related basic need level 1 sub-headings as two separate paragraphs (with or without level 2 sub-heading) OR create new major heading addressing need satisfaction and frustration. However, basic psychological needs explaining social media use naturally addresses satisfaction and frustration while explain how each basic need is related to social media. Consider structuring paragraphs under level 1 sub-heading by topic rather than needs satisfaction and frustration e.g. different types of competence social media influences such as sense of self and digital competence.'' ''Author note:'' Potentially add case studies or examples of patterns of social media use explained by basic psychological needs for key age groups across the lifespan. Alternatively, case studies or examples in different environments/contexts. * Case study on youth/adolescents * Case study on university students * Case study on adults or elderly adults If you are feeling ..., check out the chapter on about ...(link).{{robelbox|theme=13|title=Scenario: ...|iconwidth=55px|icon=Think Outside the Box Flat Icon GIF Animation.gif}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> Test content using a default box with theme=2 </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ''Author note: Potentially add additional major heading and section focused on action orientated tips for healthy social media use that satisfies and supports basic needs and wellness.'' '''How to engage with social media to promote health and well-being through satisfaction of basic psychological needs''' * Limiting social media use * Use social media as an avenue for connection with friends and family while also prioritising connection with others in real-life face-to-face ways. * Setting clear goals and motives for social media use * Using social media as a creative outlet * If you get struck '''Potential solutions?''' "Limiting social media time, increasing media literacy and redesigning platforms might be keys to healthier digital interactions to counter this troubling trend. (Forbes)." ==Conclusion== * Social media use is a prevalent part of daily life for many people. Linked to increase in technology. * SDT, specifically BPNT, helps explain social media patterns of engagement. * Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, offering opportunities to connect, express, and engage, but it also brings significant risks to mental health and well-being. * Psychological science, particularly SDT and BPNT, helps explain the complex relationship between social media, motivation, and well-being. According to BPNT, all humans have three basic psychological needs which are essential for psychological wellness and optimal performance: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. * Social media can support these needs by allowing users to make choices, build skills, and feel connected. However, it can also frustrate or thwart these needs, such as when users experience pressure, comparison, exclusion, or lack of control. * The psychological processes behind social media design act on these basic needs and influence patterns of engagement that may feel rewarding but can become problematic over time. * Understanding underlying mechanisms of social media can help individuals and society make more informed, intentional decisions about how to engage with social media. * Rather than framing social media as entirely good or bad, SDT provides a lens through which to understand its effects. * Supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness is key to promoting healthy, self-determined social media use and enhancing overall well-being in a digital world. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}'''Take-home messages''' * Message{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) - TBC if keep* * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Frustration of basic psychological needs|Frustration of basic psychological needs]] (Book chapter, 2021) - TBC if keep* * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|Mobile phone use motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[w:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Grubbs, J. B., Tóth-Király, I., Nagy, L., Koós, M., Kraus, S. W., Demetrovics, Z., Potenza, M. N., Ballester-Arnal, R., Batthyány, D., Bergeron, S., Billieux, J., Briken, P., Burkauskas, J., Cárdenas-López, G., Carvalho, J., Castro-Calvo, J., Chen, L., Strong, C., Ciocca, G., … Bőthe, B. (2025). Basic psychological needs satisfaction: An international examination of invariance across 22 languages and 32 countries. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''49''(5), 552–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-025-10151-z Montag, C., Lachmann, B., Herrlich, M., & Zweig, K. (2019). Addictive features of social media/messenger platforms and freemium games against the background of psychological and economic theories. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''16''(14), 2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142612 Parent, N. (2023). Basic need satisfaction through social media engagement: A developmental framework for understanding adolescent social media use. ''Human Development'', ''67''(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000529449 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''The American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. The Guildford Press. Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2021). Building a science of motivated persons: Self-determination theory’s empirical approach to human experience and the regulation of behavior. ''Motivation Science'', ''7''(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000194 Schivinski, B., Christodoulides, G., & Dabrowski, D. (2016). Measuring consumers’ engagement with brand-related social-media content. ''Journal of Advertising Research'', ''56''(1), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2016-004 Trunfio, M., & Rossi, S. (2021). Conceptualising and measuring social media engagement: A systematic literature review. ''Italian Journal of Marketing'', ''2021''(3), 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43039-021-00035-8 Vansteenkiste, M., & Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration'', ''23''(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359 Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., & Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1 West, M., Rice, S., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2023). Adolescent social media use: Cultivating and constraining competence. ''International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being'', ''18''(1), 2277623. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2023.2277623 West, M., Rice, S., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2024). Adolescent social media use through a self-determination theory lens: A systematic scoping review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''21''(7), 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070862 }} ==External links== * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://wearesocial.com/uk/blog/2025/10/digital-2026-global-overview-report/ Digital 2026 global overview report] (We Are Social) * [https://www.ted.com/talks/margaret_gould_stewart_how_giant_websites_design_for_you_and_a_billion_others_too?referrer=playlist-how_did_the_internet_take_over_our_lives&autoplay=true How giant websites design for you (and a billion others, too), Margaret Gould Stewart] (TED Talk, 2014) - TBC keep* * [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory) * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/Social-media Social media and mental health] (Beyond Blue) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4TMPXK9tw5U The battle for your time: Exposing the costs of social media, Dino Ambrosi] (TEDx Laguna Blanca School, 2023) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I&t=2s Promoting motivation, health, and excellence, Ed Deci] (TEDx Flour City, 2012) - TBC keep* * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6fm1gt5YAM Edward Deci - Self-determination theory] (The Brainwaves Video Anthology, 2017) - TBC keep* [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social media]] p2dt1nbznx4gl8xfoa8magfmdpupg6y 2 322855 2823265 2821812 2026-08-20T01:41:28Z U3247927 3005952 changed book chapter name 2823265 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year student in motivation and emotion at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] My hobbies include : [[File:Bread Ahead Baking Courses.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. I find baking exciting as there is no limits]] * Baking * Colouring * Cooking * Walking * Travelling == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs|Romantic entertainment and love beliefs]] == Social contributions == # fbdbz7zsywp5grbxxk4ey86vzfrhuyn 2823278 2823265 2026-08-20T01:45:57Z U3247927 3005952 edited hobbies 2823278 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year student in motivation and emotion at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Some of my hobbies include : [[File:Bread Ahead Baking Courses.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. I find baking exciting as there is no limits]] * Baking * Colouring * Cooking * Walking * Travelling == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs|Romantic entertainment and love beliefs]] == Social contributions == # 0g7tghlw2059aonfkgnh41rbqo3g1ar 2823286 2823278 2026-08-20T01:48:50Z U3247927 3005952 add link to motivation and emotion 2823286 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year student in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Some of my hobbies include : [[File:Bread Ahead Baking Courses.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. I find baking exciting as there is no limits]] * Baking * Colouring * Cooking * Walking * Travelling == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs|Romantic entertainment and love beliefs]] == Social contributions == # fwq87oyeth4jaan4sruzdpfnm8wzyy2 2823298 2823286 2026-08-20T01:52:19Z U3247927 3005952 added links 2823298 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year student in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Some of my hobbies include : [[File:Bread Ahead Baking Courses.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. I find baking exciting as there is no limits]] * [[w:Baking|Baking]] * Colouring * Cooking * Walking * Travelling == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs|Romantic entertainment and love beliefs]] == Social contributions == # 19jekhdu6r2ecjppmdy6y0zwzraj7dc 2823326 2823298 2026-08-20T02:01:35Z U3247927 3005952 added second images 2823326 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year student in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Some of my hobbies include : [[File:Bread Ahead Baking Courses.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. I find baking exciting as there is no limits]] * [[w:Baking|Baking]] * Colouring * Cooking * Walking * Travelling [[File:Colouring pencils.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Colouring pencils that can be used for creating art]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs|Romantic entertainment and love beliefs]] == Social contributions == # 3894lyy67wiulmcwt5hqlfp9uv8t8dc 2 322868 2823435 2821664 2026-08-20T03:23:55Z ~2026-45683-78 3108575 /* Information about the author */ 2823435 wikitext text/x-wiki == Information about the author == Hi, my name is '''Mercy'''. I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I enjoy learning about the diverse field of psychology and I am particularly interested in the areas of psychotherapy, counselling, and mental health and wellbeing. [[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 1.''' My key interests in psychology are mental health, psychotherapy, and counselling. ]] === Professional interests === My current professional interests include: * [[w:Mental_health|Mental health]] (see Figure 1) * [[w:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] and [[w:Counseling|counselling]] * Social role valorisation * Working with youth and young adults * Understanding pain === Personal interests and passions === My personal interest and passions include: * [[w:Art|Art]] and [[w:Photography|photography]] * [[wikipedia:Ceramics|Ceramics]] * Puzzles and boardgames * Hiking * Travel == Professional profiles == Feel free to browse my [https://www.linkedin.com/in/mercy-canning-50619226b/ LinkedIn profile]. == Book chapter I am working on == For my degree, I am undertaking a unit called [[motivation and emotion]]. I am currently contributing to the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book]] project by writing a book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|motivation and emotion book 2026]]. The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book]] project aims to help people understand and improve their motivational and emotional lives using psychological science. The book chapter I am writing is called [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and social media use|Self-determination theory and social media use]]: How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? == Social contributions == === Wikiversity contributions (TBC heading === ==== Book chapter talk pages ==== Provided/added feedback... Responded to and enaged with feedback on my talk page... # ==== Direct Edits ==== Reviewed... Edited... Rewrote... Added clarification... 2026 # 2025 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FWork_motivation_and_self-determination_theory&diff=2726464&oldid=2676654 Rewrote close-ended focus questions to be open-ended.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2739654&oldid=2240585 Commented on Basic psychological need theory book chapter and suggested sub-headings for the three basic needs with further information and examples underneath to improve clarity and page layout.] ==== Media uploads ==== Uploaded... picture, graph 2026 # 2025 # [[:File:Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt.svg|18 October 2025: Created and uploaded an image to my book chapter titled 'Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt.svg'.]] # [[commons:File:Social_media_integration_and_central_role_in_everyday_life_-_media_networks_and_connection.png|20 October 2025: Created and uploaded an image to my book chapter titled 'Social media integration and central role in everyday life - media networks and connection.png'.]] # [[commons:File:Social_media_use_impact_girls_mental_health_plants_thrive_or_wilt_raw.png|20 October 2025: Uploaded an updated image as a PNG file to my book chapter titled 'Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt raw.png'.]] # [[commons:File:Social_media_positive_&_negative_effects_on_mental_health_&_well-being.png|20 October 2025: Created and uploaded an image to my book titled 'Social media positive & negative effects on mental health & well-being.png'.]] ==== UCLearn discussion post contributions ==== 2026 # 2025 # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/394550?entry_id=715257 Commented on a discussion forum about what I want to learn about motivation and emotion.] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/408822 10 October 2025: Replied to a discussion post on UCLearn titled 'What is the hardest part to being motivated to achieve your academic goals?'] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/405539 10 October 2025: Contributed to a UCLearn discussion post titled 'Music and Mood'.] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/409029 10 October 2025: Created a discussion post on UCLearn titled 'Why do you use (or avoid) social media? Exploring social media engagement and psychological needs'.] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/406646 11 October 2025: Contributed to discussion post on UCLearn titled 'Motivation for things you enjoy?'] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/407763 11 October 2025: Replied to a discussion post about 'Balancing Self-Care and Being Productive'.] * Added my book chapter to a UCLearn Canvas discussion post to receive feedback from peers. * Contributed to a UCLearn Canvas discussion forum k6kkqzg6rq0bplwpg6u8j2zl4q3k322 2823485 2823435 2026-08-20T04:00:11Z GraceInMind 3005521 2823485 wikitext text/x-wiki == Information about the author == Hi, my name is '''Mercy'''. I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I enjoy learning about the diverse field of psychology and I am particularly interested in the areas of psychotherapy, counselling, and mental health and wellbeing. [[File:Practicing mindfulness promotes creativity.png|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 1.''' My key interests in psychology are mental health, psychotherapy, and counselling. ]] === Professional interests === My current professional interests include: * [[w:Mental_health|Mental health]] (see Figure 1) * [[w:Psychotherapy|Psychotherapy]] and [[w:Counseling|counselling]] * Social role valorisation * Working with youth and young adults * Understanding pain === Personal interests and passions === My personal interest and passions include: * [[w:Art|Art]] and [[w:Photography|photography]] * [[wikipedia:Ceramics|Ceramics]] * Puzzles and boardgames * Hiking * Travel == Professional profiles == Feel free to browse my [https://www.linkedin.com/in/mercy-canning-50619226b/ LinkedIn profile]. == Book chapter I am working on == For my degree, I am undertaking a unit called [[motivation and emotion]]. I am currently contributing to the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book]] project by writing a book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|motivation and emotion book 2026]]. The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book]] project aims to help people understand and improve their motivational and emotional lives using psychological science. The book chapter I am writing is called [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and social media use|Self-determination theory and social media use]]: How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? == Social contributions == === Wikiversity contributions === ==== Book chapter talk pages ==== Provided/added feedback... Responded to and enaged with feedback on my talk page...offeres a resources..firt edit (link directly to the page)...clarification tags # ==== Direct Edits ==== Reviewed... Edited... Rewrote... Added clarification... ===== 2026 ===== # ===== 2025 ===== # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2024%2FWork_motivation_and_self-determination_theory&diff=2726464&oldid=2676654 Rewrote close-ended focus questions to be open-ended.] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FBasic_psychological_need_theory&diff=2739654&oldid=2240585 Commented on Basic psychological need theory book chapter and suggested sub-headings for the three basic needs with further information and examples underneath to improve clarity and page layout.] ==== Media uploads ==== Uploaded... picture, graph ===== 2026 ===== # ===== 2025 ===== # [[:File:Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt.svg|18 October 2025: Created and uploaded an image to my book chapter titled 'Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt.svg'.]] # [[commons:File:Social_media_integration_and_central_role_in_everyday_life_-_media_networks_and_connection.png|20 October 2025: Created and uploaded an image to my book chapter titled 'Social media integration and central role in everyday life - media networks and connection.png'.]] # [[commons:File:Social_media_use_impact_girls_mental_health_plants_thrive_or_wilt_raw.png|20 October 2025: Uploaded an updated image as a PNG file to my book chapter titled 'Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt raw.png'.]] # [[commons:File:Social_media_positive_&_negative_effects_on_mental_health_&_well-being.png|20 October 2025: Created and uploaded an image to my book titled 'Social media positive & negative effects on mental health & well-being.png'.]] ==== UCLearn discussion post contributions ==== ===== 2026 ===== #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806227 20 August 2026: Contributed to a UCLearn dsicussion titled 'Breathing Exercises and Relaxation Book Chapter' providing tips for development of the book chapter.] #20 August 2026: #20 August 2026 ===== 2025 ===== # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/394550?entry_id=715257 Commented on a discussion forum about what I want to learn about motivation and emotion.] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/408822 10 October 2025: Replied to a discussion post on UCLearn titled 'What is the hardest part to being motivated to achieve your academic goals?'] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/405539 10 October 2025: Contributed to a UCLearn discussion post titled 'Music and Mood'.] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/409029 10 October 2025: Created a discussion post on UCLearn titled 'Why do you use (or avoid) social media? Exploring social media engagement and psychological needs'.] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/406646 11 October 2025: Contributed to discussion post on UCLearn titled 'Motivation for things you enjoy?'] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/17386/discussion_topics/407763 11 October 2025: Replied to a discussion post about 'Balancing Self-Care and Being Productive'.] * Added my book chapter to a UCLearn Canvas discussion post to receive feedback from peers. * Contributed to a UCLearn Canvas discussion forum 8b03n6vs2hehg3a7dwqiuwel0s17d6h 0 323052 2823593 2767961 2026-08-20T08:18:52Z U3254168 3106320 Made spelling and grammar corrections. 2823593 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Future orientation and criminal behaviour:<br>How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox2|title=Imagine ...|theme=3|msg= [[File:Example en.svg|150px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. ...caption goes here...]] Imagine you're facing growing financial stress. Bills are piling up quickly, and the pressure to make money quickly is becoming overwhelming. In such a pressured environment you start to figure out options in order to afford life's demands. On the one hand, there is a tempting, quick-fix shortcut through crime, like robbing a store, which promises fast cash and instant relief. On the other hand, there is the option of applying for steady work, which offers a slower but more reliable income. When thinking only only of the immediate moment, the risky choice may seem appealing because it provides quick rewards. However, when you picture your future self - maybe as a working, stable and free of criminal charges individual, the longer path begins to make more sense. This process of weighing short-term gains against long-term outcomes reflects future orientation, and it plays a key role in whether individuals move toward or away from criminal activity.|icon=Detective-icon.png}} Future orientation, a critical component of identity development, is defined as a personally developed sense of identity through connecting the self across time and within social contexts (Johnson et al., 2016). When individuals lack future orientation, they may be more prone to making decisions that lead to criminal activity (Clinkinbeard, 2013){{ic|Not in references}}. * Between the years of 2023-24, police in Australia proceeded against 340,681 with the top crimes committed being intent to cause injury, drug offences and theft ([https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice Australian Bureau of Statistics], 2025). * Research suggests that individuals, particularly youth, with positive influences from teachers, peers, and other types of societal influences contribute to positive feelings of optimism increasing positive future orientation, indicating a connection with a decreased need to participate in delinquency and substance abuse (Mueller et al., 2023){{ic|Not in references}}. {{Robelbox2|msg= * How does an individual's ability to imagine and plan for their future influence their likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour? * In what ways does a lack of future orientation contribute to impulsive decision-making and criminal activity? * Can strengthening future orientation through interventions (e.g. goal-setting, education, or mentoring) reduce the risk of criminal behaviour?{{ic|Use open-ended questions}}|title=Focus questions|icon=Crystal_Clear_app_cache.png}} ==Psychological understanding of future orientation== The psychological understanding of future orientation focuses on how people think about and prepare for their futures. It involves the ability to set goals, anticipate challenges, and make decisions in the present that align with desired outcomes. Future orientation is shaped by motivation, personal values, and past experiences, all of which influence how individuals approach planning and persistence. A strong sense of future orientation is linked to greater self-control, resilience, and optimism, while a limited focus on the future can lead to impulsive or short-sighted decision making. Psychologically, it reflects a balance between present needs and long-term aspirations.{{f}} === Defining future orientation === Future orientation is a psychological construct that refers to the ways individuals imagine and evaluate their future selves including their aspirations, goals, and possible life outcomes. The core of this concept is the idea of possible selves, which are cognitive representations of what people might become, would like to become, or fear becoming in the future{{f}}. Research suggests that these self-representations serve as motivational guides, influencing present behaviour by providing standards against which current actions are regulated (Hoyle & Sherrill, 2006). Future orientation has been linked to a variety of developmental outcomes, with studies showing that adolescents’ thoughts, beliefs, and hopes about their future are predictive of later life direction. For instance, negative views of one’s future have been associated with negative outcomes among youth exposed to school bullying and cyberbullying (Låftman et al., 2018). Developmental perspectives emphasize that future orientation is not concerned with predicting objective outcomes, but rather with constructing an individual representation of a desirable life. Seginer (2018) argues that these subjective visions are central to identity development, serving as motivational anchors that guide current decision-making and behaviour. Taken together, empowerment on future orientation highlights its role as a key mechanism in self-regulation and developmental processes, shaping how individuals set goals, respond to challenges, and direct their lives across time. === Influences on future orientation === Adolescence is a developmental stage often characterised by feelings of uncertainty and instability, with the phase "no future" used regularly by young people reflecting the challenges they face in navigating an unpredictable world. According to Trommsdorff (1986), adolescents are frequently confronted with shifting economic, social, and political pressures which shape how they perceive and plan for their futures. These circumstances make future orientation a critical component in young people's development in their ability to envision and prepare for what lies ahead. However, the ability to stay future focused is often undermined by procrastination. Chen and Kruger (2017) argue that when individuals prioritise tasks with immediate benefits while disregarding the long-term consequences, they display a weak sense of future orientation. Their findings suggest that when people perceive their likelihood of future success as low, they will be more inclined to procrastinate which will further lead to diminishing their motivation to pursue meaningful long-term goals. This cycle can reinforce a sense of hopelessness in young people whom already struggle with uncertainty. However, not all focus should be placed on young people's futures alone. Moss, Wilson, Irons and Naivalu (2017) highlight that while those who maintain a clear sense of their future tend to have healthier behaviours, those who reflect on their past experiences can also experience similar psychological benefits. By analysing their past, individuals gain insights that can inform their decisions and enhance their motivation for future aspirations. This suggests that rather than concentrating solely on either future goals or past experiences, a balanced orientation is beneficial. Young people who can combine lessons from the past and still sustain clarity about the future may be better equipped to manage the insecurities of their developmental stage. Taken together, these perspectives highlight the complexity of future orientation in young people as it is simultaneously shaped by external challenges, personal perceptions of success, and the ability to find value in both past and future timeframes. === Psychological theories of future orientation === Identity development is a complex psychological process influenced by an individual's beliefs, motivations, and perceptions of time. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/expectancy-value-theory#:~:text=Expectancy%2Dvalue%20theory%20is%20defined,influencing%20motivation%20and%20achievement%20outcomes. Expectancy-Value theory] proposes that people are motivated to engage in certain behaviours based on two main factors which are their perceived likelihood of success and the value they align to achieving that outcome (Urgvarsky, 2024){{ic|Not in references}}. When individuals believe they can succeed at something and see it as meaningful, they are more likely to invest effort and persistence toward their goals (Ungvarsky, 2024){{ic|Not in references}}. This perspective highlights how personal expectations shape current motivation and behaviour (Urgvarsky, 2024){{ic|Not in references}}. Similarly, [[Time perspective|Time Perspective Theory]] suggests that the way individuals view their time in the past, present or future will affect their thoughts, emotions, and actions{{f}}. Those with a future oriented perspective often demonstrate greater goal setting, self control, and responsibility as opposed to those focused on the present may prioritise immediate pleasure or emotion driven decisions{{f}}. Both theories emphasise the crucial role of cognitive and motivational processes in shaping behaviour and identity overtime. Supporting these theories, the [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/identity-status Identity Status Theory] explores how people form their sense of self through exploration and commitment in key life areas such as values, beliefs, relationships, and career paths (Mercadal, 2024). According to this framework, individuals can fall into one of the following four identity statuses based on the degree to which they have explored and committed to their choices (Mercadal, 2024): {{g}} * Achievement * Moratorium * Foreclosure * Diffusion Together, {{g}} these theories illustrate how motivation, time perception, and self exploration interact to influence personal growth. A person's expectations for success, their orientation toward time, and their level of identity commitment all contribute to the development of a coherent and stable sense of self. {{Robelbox2|theme=2|title=Check your knowledge on Understanding of Future Orientation|msg=<quiz display=simple> {Future orientation involves considering long-term goals and potential consequences, which can guide present decision making behaviour?} + True - False </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {Individuals with low future orientation are more likely to prioritise immediate rewards and engage in riskier behaviours?} + True - False </quiz>|icon=Crystal_Clear_app_ktip.png}} == Understanding criminal behaviour == Understanding criminal behaviour requires examining the complex interaction of psychological, social, biological, and environmental factors that shape an individuals actions and desires. Psychological influences such as personality traits, self control, aggression, and cognitive patterns can affect how people perceive and respond to situations, while social dynamics play a key role in reinforcing or discouraging antisocial behaviour. Biological factors, including hormone imbalances and genetic predispositions, may further influence aggression and impulsivity, particularly when paired with adverse environmental conditions. Additionally, psychological theories, including psychodynamic, social learning, and cognitive perspectives offer valuable frameworks for understanding motivations and thought processes behind criminal acts. By integrating these approaches, researchers and practitioners gain a more comprehensive view of why individuals engage in crime, helping to inform more effective prevention, rehabilitation, and intervention strategies that address both internal and external drivers of offending behaviour.{{f}} === Psychological and social influences === Criminal behaviour is a complex outcome influenced by a combination of psychological and social factors that shape in individual's emotions, thoughts, and actions. Research suggests that certain psychological traits such as personality characteristics, low self control, aggressive behaviour, and cognitive distortions are linked to higher levels of criminal activity (Kamaluddin, 2015). Individuals with low self control may act impulsively, while those displaying aggression, or distorted thinking may justify harmful behaviours or lack empathy towards others. Those internal traits can increase the likelihood of engaging in antisocial behaviour, particularly when combined with adverse social conditions. Dysfunctional family environments marked by neglect, abuse, or limited parental supervision have been shown to contribute to delinquent behaviour and later criminality (Le Blanc, 2016). Within such environments, children often experience emotional instability and may fail to develop appropriate coping mechanisms or moral understanding. The absence of supportive role models and consistent guidance can lead to the development of deviant behaviours as a means of coping or belonging{{f}}. When psychological vulnerabilities cross with negative social influences, the risk of criminal behaviour becomes significantly higher{{f}}. This highlights the importance of understanding criminality as a product of both individual psychological traits and broader environmental contexts, rather than a result of one single factor. === Biological and environmental factors === Criminal behaviour is shaped by a combination of biological and environment influences that interact to affect how individuals think, feel, and act. From a biological perspective, hormones such as [[wikipedia:Testosterone|testosterone]] and [[wikipedia:Cortisol|cortisol]] play a significant role in regulating aggression, stress responses, and risk taking behaviours (Ellis, 2018). Elevated levels of testosterone have been associated with increased dominance and aggression, which may contribute to a higher likelihood of engaging in violent or antisocial acts. Conversely, abnormal cortisol levels can disrupt emotional regulation and impulse control leading to maladaptive coping mechanisms and heightened reactivity to stress{{f}}. These biological predispositions do not directly cause criminality but may increase vulnerability to deviant behaviour when combined with negative environmental conditions{{f}}. Environmental criminology highlights how the spaces individuals inhabit and the opportunities available to them shape their likelihood of offending (Townsley, 2024){{ic|Not in references}}. Those raised in deprived environments with limited access to education, recreational facilities, or positive social networks are often exposed to fewer prosocial pathways for development and greater exposure to criminal influences. In such settings, crime can become a logical response to limited resources or social exclusion. The interaction between biological factors and environmental factors illustrates that criminal behaviour arises not from a single cause but from the dynamic interaction between innate predispositions and contextual experiences. Understanding how hormonal influences cross with environmental deprivation provides valuable insight into why some individuals are more prone to criminal activity, emphasises the importance of both biological regulation and supportive, resource rich environments in preventing crime and promoting positive behavioural outcomes. {{ic|How does this relate to future orientation?}} === Psychological theories of criminal behaviour === Psychological theories provide valuable insight into the underlying mechanisms that contribute to criminal behaviour emphasising the roles of unconscious motivations, learned behaviours, and cognitive processes. The [https://nobaproject.com/modules/the-psychodynamic-perspective psychodynamic perspective], rooted in [[wikipedia:Freud's_psychoanalytic_theories|Freud's psychoanalytic theory]], suggests that criminal behaviour often stems from unresolved internal conflicts, repressed emotions, and negative early childhood experiences (Deb, 2025){{ic|Not in references}}. According to this view, individuals who fail to successfully navigate early development stages may experience psychological imbalances that influence their capacity for moral reasoning, self control and empathy. Criminal acts, therefore, may arise as expressions of unresolved trauma or unconscious drives seeking release. In contrast, [[wikipedia:Social_learning_theory|Social Learning Theory]] focuses on how criminal behaviour is acquired through interaction and observation{{f}}. It proposes that individuals learn values, attitudes, and techniques of offending by imitating others, particularly within their social environments (Akers and Jennings, 2019). Exposure to deviant peers, family members, or media representations normalises antisocial actions, reinforcing them through rewards or acceptance within those groups. This highlights the importance of environment and reinforcement in shaping behavioural choices. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/cognitive-theory Cognitive Theory], meanwhile, examines how thought processes and moral reasoning influence criminality{{f}}. It advances that distorted thinking patterns, poor moral development, or faulty decision making processes can lead individuals to justify or fail to recognise the dishonesty of their actions (Mervyn and Ashton, 2023). Deficiencies in empathy, impulse control, and problem solving are common cognitive traits observed in offenders. Together, these three perspectives highlight that criminal behaviour is rarely the result of one single factor, but rather a complex interaction between unconscious emotions, learned experiences, and cognitive distortions. Understanding these psychological dimensions provides a foundation for developing effective rehabilitation strategies that address emotional conflicts, reshape learned behaviours, and correct distorted thinking patterns to reduce the likelihood of reoffending. {{Robelbox2|theme=2|msg=<quiz display=simple> {Criminal behaviour is influenced solely by an individuals{{g}} psychological traits, with little impact from social or environmental factors?} + True - False </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {Biological, social, and environmental factors, along with psychological processes, all interact to shape an individuals likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour?} + True - False </quiz>|title=Check your knowledge on understanding criminal behaviour|icon=Crystal_Clear_app_ktip.png}} == Connection between future orientation and criminal behaviour == The relationship between future orientation and criminal behaviour highlights how an individuals{{g}} perception of time and future goals influence their choices and actions. Those with a strong sense of future orientation are less likely to engage in crime, as this mindset promotes self control and prosocial behaviour{{f}}. In contrast, individuals with limited or negative views of their future often act impulsively, prioritising short term gratification over long term outcomes. Understanding future orientation as both a protective factor against crime and a risk factor when absent provides valuable insight into preventing offending and supporting positive behavioural change. === Understanding the relationship between future orientation and criminal behaviour === Research consistently shows that future orientation plays a crucial role in shaping behavioural choices, particularly in relation to criminal activity{{f}}. A strong future orientation has been found to significantly reduce the likelihood of engaging in violent or impulsive acts{{f}}. Studies reveal an opposed relationship between future orientation and criminal behaviour, meaning that as individuals develop a stronger sense of future focus, their involvement in violent crime tends to decline over time (Hoeve et al., 2012){{expand}}. In contrast, those with a short-term mindset, often driven by impulsivity, sensation seeking, and low self control are more likely to engage in criminal and antisocial behaviour (Dieter, 2023){{ic|Not in references}}{{expand}}. Such individuals may prioritise immediate satisfaction over long term outcomes, reacting quickly to situations without fully considering the consequences. Environmental and experimental factors including unstable family environments and socioeconomic disadvantage can reinforce this short term thinking making a criminal behaviour appear as a rational or necessary means of coping or survival. Furthermore, research suggests that individuals who consistently seek short term rewards or immediate problem solving solutions are more susceptible to criminal involvement, as this mindset undermines long term goal planning and self regulation (Squillaro and Baxter, 2024){{expand}}. Those with strong future orientation, however, tend to develop greater resilience, self-discipline, and prosocial goals, reducing the appeal of crime as a pathway to success. Overall, the relationship between time perspective and criminal behaviour highlights the importance of fostering future oriented thinking in rime prevention and rehabilitation programs. Encouraging individuals to set long term goals and evaluate the future consequences of their actions can promote more adaptive decision making, reduce impulsivity, and ultimately decrease the likelihood of criminal offending. === Future orientation as a protective factor against crime === Future orientation functions as a significant protective factor against criminal behaviour by shaping how individuals, particularly young offenders, perceive their goals, choices, and potential futures. Motivation to succeed plays a central role in this process, influencing the extent to which individuals envision and work toward positive long term outcomes. For juvenile offenders, a strong internal drive to achieve success helps guide their decision making, encouraging goal setting, and engagement in prosocial activities that contribute to rehabilitation and personal growth (Chen, 2025). When individuals can imagine a meaningful and attainable future, they are less likely to engage in behaviours that threaten those aspiration. Research further indicates that developing a positive future orientation not only protects against antisocial and delinquent behaviour but also reduces the likelihood of reoffending and the severity of future criminal acts (Mueller et al., 2023){{ic|Not in references}}. A clear sense of purpose and future direction fosters greater self control, emotional regulation, and commitment to lawful, productive lifestyles. Moreover, individuals who adopt a future focused mindset are better equipped to resist the influence of negative peers and impulsive tendencies that often contribute to criminal activity. Encouraging future oriented thinking through education, mentorship, and skill development can therefore play a critical role in crime prevention and rehabilitation. By helping offenders visualise achievable goals and connect present actions in future success, intervention programs can strengthen resilience, promote self-efficacy, and delay or prevent the onset of delinquency. Ultimately fostering motivation and a positive vision for the future empowers individuals to break cycles of offending, transforming future orientation into both a psychological strength and a key mechanism for long term behavioural change. === Lack of future orientation and criminal risk === Adolescents raised in violent or unstable environments often struggle to develop a positive sense of the future{{f}}. Constant exposure to aggression, instability, or neglect can distort their understanding of safety and success, making violence seem like a normal or necessary response to life's challenges. This environment fosters hopelessness and a lack of positive expectations, as many young people come to believe that long term goals such as education or employment are unattainable (Stoddard et al., 2011). When individuals cannot imagine a better future, they become less motivated to engage in behaviours that support personal growth or stability. Instead, their focus shifts toward immediate survival and short term gratification, reducing concern about the consequences of risky and antisocial actions{{f}}. As a result, impulsive and violent behaviours can appear rational or unavoidable. The absence of positive role models and supportive community structures further limits their ability to connect present actions with future goals. this disconnection perpetuates cycles of violence and criminal involvement{{f}}. To counter this, interventions that foster hope, resilience, and future oriented thinking are essential{{f}}. Encouraging adolescents to set meaningful goals and helping them visualise positive life outcomes can strengthen motivation, reduce engagement in risky behaviours, and promote more constructive, future focused decision making{{f}}. {{Robelbox2|title=Check your connection between future orientation and criminal behaviour knowledge|theme=2|msg=<quiz display=simple> {A strong future orientation decreases the likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour by promoting self-control and goal-directed actions?} + True - False </quiz> <quiz display=simple> {Adolescents with a limited short-term future orientation are less likely to engage in criminal activity because they focus on immediate consequences?} + True - False </quiz>|icon=Crystal_Clear_app_ktip.png}} ==Conclusion== The interplay between an individuals sense of future and criminal behaviour underscores the power of psychological time orientation as both a risk factor and a protective factor. Those who maintain a strong, positive future orientation tend to exhibit more self control, goal directed behaviour, and resistance to impulsive decision making thereby reducing their likelihood of engaging in violence or crime. On the other hand, when adolescents grow up in volatile environments that reduce hope and constrain their ability to imagine better prospects, they often default to present focused, risk taking pathways and view violence or illegal acts as one of the few available means to immediate ends. Importantly, interventions that foster future orientation through mentorship, goal setting, education, and supportive relationships can help bridge the gap between present actions and future aspirations. By strengthening a sense of purpose and connecting behaviour to long term outcomes, such efforts can shift trajectories away from offending and toward more constructive, prosocial lives. ==See also== [[wikipedia:Future_orientation|Future Orientation]] (Wikipedia) [[wikipedia:Crime|Crime]] (Wikipedia) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Positive criminology and motivation|Positive Criminology and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Akers, R. L., & Jennings, W. G. (2019). The Social Learning Theory of Crime and Deviance. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, 1(1), 113–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20779-3_6 ‌Australian Bureau of Statistics . (2025, March 6). Recorded Crime - Offenders, 2023-24 financial year. Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/recorded-crime-offenders/2023-24 Carmina-Elena Tolbaru. (2021). PSYCHODYNAMIC INTERPRETATION OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR. Jurnalul de Drept Si Stiinte Administrative, 1(15), 43–49. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1299004 ‌Chen, B.-B., & Kruger, D. (2017). Future orientation as a mediator between perceived environmental cues in likelihood of future success and procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 108, 128–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.017 Chen, Y. (2025). From Adolescence to Adulthood: Examining Future Orientation Trajectories and Their Influencing Factors Among Serious Juvenile Offenders. Youth & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x251344315 ‌Ellis, L. (2014). Hormones, the Brain, and Criminality. Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 2345–2351. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2_59 ‌Expectancy-value theory {{!}} EBSCO. (2024). EBSCO Information Services, Inc. {{!}} Www.ebsco.com. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/expectancy-value-theory Heidari, K., Davari, H., Espanani, M., Poursalehi, M., Naeini, S., Rastkerdar, Z., Azizi, A., Zakizadeh, M., & Omidi, R. (2014). The relationships between environmental factors and violent behaviors in adolescent students of Isfahan, Iran. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(14), 97. https://doi.org/10.4103/2008-7802.157664 Hoeve, M., Stams, G. J. J. M., van der Put, C. E., Dubas, J. S., van der Laan, P. H., & Gerris, J. R. M. (2012). A Meta-analysis of Attachment to Parents and Delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 771–785. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3375078/ ‌‌‌‌Hoyle, R. H., & Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future Orientation in the Self-System: Possible Selves, Self-Regulation, and Behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1673–1696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x ‌Johnson, S. R. L., Blum, R. W., & Cheng, T. L. (2014). Future orientation: a construct with implications for adolescent health and wellbeing. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 26(4), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2013-0333 Kamaluddin, M., Shariff, N., Othman, A., Ismail, K., & Saat, G. (2015). Linking Psychological Traits with Criminal Behaviour: A Review [Review of Linking Psychological Traits with Criminal Behaviour: A Review]. A Review ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry, 16(2). https://www.aseanjournalofpsychiatry.org/articles/linking-psychological-traits-with-criminal-behaviour-a-review.pdf ‌‌‌Kyle Curtis Mueller, Cavitt, J., & Marcus Tyler Carey. (2023). Future orientation in justice-involved youth: The effects of adverse and positive childhood experiences, and being dual-status. 141, 106230–106230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106230 Låftman, S., Alm, S., Sandahl, J., & Modin, B. (2018). Future Orientation among Students Exposed to School Bullying and Cyberbullying Victimization. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(4), 605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040605 Le Blanc, M. (1992). Family Dynamics, Adolescent Delinquency, and Adult Criminality. Psychiatry, 55(4), 336–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1992.11024608 ‌Mercadal, T. (2024). Identity Formation {{!}} EBSCO. EBSCO Information Services, Inc. {{!}} Www.ebsco.com. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/identity-formation Mervyn, D. J., & Stacy Ashton, M. A. (2023). 7.2 Cognitive & Cognitive-Behavioural Theories of Criminal Behavior. Kpu.pressbooks.pub. https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/introcrim/chapter/7-2-cognitive-cognitive-behavioural-theories-of-criminal-behavior/ ‌‌Moss, S. A., Wilson, S. G., Irons, M., & Naivalu, C. (2017). The relationship between an orientation to the future and an orientation to the past: The role of future clarity. Stress and Health, 33(5), 608–616. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2747 Short-term thinking, criminal action. (n.d.). Www.mpg.de. https://www.mpg.de/20657878/short-term-mindsets-criminality ‌‌‌Seginer, R. (2018). Future Orientation. Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 1506–1513. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33228-4_145 Stoddard, S. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Bauermeister, J. A. (2010). Thinking About the Future as a Way to Succeed in the Present: A Longitudinal Study of Future Orientation and Violent Behaviors Among African American Youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3-4), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9383-0 ‌Squillaro, D., & Bixter, M. T. (2024). The relationship between four indicators of future time orientation, criminal thinking style, and illegal behaviors. Journal of Forensic Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.15640 ‌to, C. (2017, February 14). Time perspective. Wikiversity.org; Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Time_perspective ‌Trommsdorff, G. (1986). Future Time Orientation and Its Relevance for Development as Action. Development as Action in Context, 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-02475-1_7 EBSCO. (2024). EBSCO Information Services, Inc. Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} ==External links== [https://open.spotify.com/episode/5SsdL88ow2aKkAQSwYDwPA?si=358c962ff2464497 Criminal Behaviour Analysis] (Spotify) [https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/national-crime-prevention-framework.pdf National Crime Prevention Framework] (Australian Institute of Criminology) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Forensic]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Time perspective]] ji8lcfyp8svdzprjzb4e5iq2yg14ymg 1 323066 2823539 2758910 2026-08-20T05:51:10Z U3285438 3103750 /* Suggestion for 'See also' section */ new section 2823539 wikitext text/x-wiki == Really engaging chapter outline == Pain as a motivation beyond the basic principle of avoiding things that will provide immediate pain such as sharp objects or hot things is really interesting! The idea that chronic pain can also lead to avoidant behaviours isn't something I had considered before and I am really interested to read more! [[User:Xav Crow|Xav Crow]] ([[User talk:Xav Crow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xav Crow|contribs]]) 05:53, 14 August 2025 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2025 |1= <!-- Title --> # The title and sub-title are correctly worded and formatted |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- Heading structure --> # Excellent – Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure <!-- Other ---> # "Introduction" heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions # Figure 1 image size can be decreased <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section <!-- Description --> # A clear description of the problem/topic is provided <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section (except Conclusion) <!-- Scope --> # It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the final word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title <!-- Clarity and readability --> # Writing is clear, concise, and easy to follow <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations <!-- Theory and research --> # Good balance of theory and research <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion (the most important section) hasn't been developed # What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?) |5= <!-- Figure --> # One or more relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # The figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider decreasing image size to make it less dominant in relation to the text |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles # Also embed links to related Wikiversity book chapters <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using one or more tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- Suggestions --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## provide full journal titles ## include hyperlinked dois ## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Basic ## Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]] <!-- External links --> # External links ## Excellent ## Use alphabetical order |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Good – two out of three types of contributions made with with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:11, 17 August 2025 (UTC) == Suggestions for chapter == Your chapter has lots of strengths so far! It has an interest and relatable real-world scenario with Emma that makes fear-avoidance easy to understand. The psychology, neuroscience, and social influences are broad and easy to understand. The focus questions are also on topic and guide the readers through what they are about to learn. I would try to keep Emma as a recurring example; ass a one-line takeaway about short-term avoidance increasing long-term disability (or something similar). The definition of acute vs chronic pain could be defined more clearly, possibly replace strong 'unknown causes' with multifactorial explanation such as risk factors, prevalence, maybe even a comparison table (helps give you credit for a learning feature). Overall, the structure is great with hooks and examples that can be easily tied together to the main topic of the chapter. [[User:Rellimit|Rellimit]] ([[User talk:Rellimit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rellimit|contribs]]) 06:55, 25 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2025 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a reasonably good chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* reduce general/background material; sharpen focus on directly addressing the sub-title: "How does avoidance of physical pain shape motivated action?" #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* write more in your own words <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* I suspect there may be unacknowledged use of [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; if so, it violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Very good use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # In some places, there are too many citations, in other places there are too few citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2758907&oldid=2754269 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Very good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> # Engaging scenario or case study in a feature box with a relevant image <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Abbreviate the description of the problem; move detail into subsequent sections # Reduce the number of citations (e.g., cite a maximum of 3 sources per point) <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are very good #* FQ1 - a better question would be what is pain avoidance #* FQ4 - could be written more clearly/succintly |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Basic—a very good range of relevant theories to pain are selected, described, and explained, however, the chapter could be strengthened by focusing more directly on pain avoidance and its impact on motivation (rather than describing theory/research about the experience of pain itself) # The fear avoidance model is the most relevant theory presented <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles # Doesn't build on related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] (by embedding interwiki links for key terms) <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Good depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Reasonably good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used #* Be more selective, to concentrate on the top sources about PA and M <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # There are a lot of citations, but a lack of indepth critical synthesis of the top research about the topic # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # The fear avoidance model is the most relevant theory presented. Focus on the research about this model to help determine its usefulness. # More detail about key studies would be ideal # In some places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Basic [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Deeper integration of research with the critical analysis of key theories would be ideal # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Reasonably good # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Abbreviate. Reduce general info about pain. Focus on synthesising the best theory and research about pain avoidance and motivation. <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is very good ## The main area for improvement is to abbreviate the less relevant aspects <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation (e.g,. Extraversion) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Reasonably well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use very good [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)]: ### List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Overall, the learning features are good to very good <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Good use of figure(s) # No use of table(s) # Excellent use of feature box(es) # Good use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient/No use of the "See also" section ## Also include links to related book chapters <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~2 logged, useful contributions with direct links to evidence # ~1 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:01, 7 October 2025 (UTC) == Suggestion for 'See also' section == Hey there, I enjoyed reading your chapter on pain avoidance motivation! I noticed that you hadn't yet included internal wiki links to related motivation and emotion book chapters. You should check out the chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Pain and motivation|Pain and motivation]], I think that it might be a valuable addition to your 'See also' section. Best regards. [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 05:51, 20 August 2026 (UTC) gysmp0x8j6m7pe60r5a3e81pqi5fsh8 0 323153 2823372 2823096 2026-08-20T02:24:56Z Jtneill 10242 /* Emotion */ Signed up user 2823372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury/]] - How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport? {{ME-By|Tammysaurus}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation/|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] - What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] - What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|U3259641}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] - How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Mame}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] - How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Perfectionism and athlete mental health/]] - How does perfectionism affect athlete mental health? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] - How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] 3z10c0zypuhs142pbrgjcewfmxalchk 2823523 2823372 2026-08-20T05:12:31Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 /* Motivation */ 2823523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury/]] - How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport? {{ME-By|Tammysaurus}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation/|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] - What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] - What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|U3259641}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] - How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|U3280250}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Mame}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] - How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Perfectionism and athlete mental health/]] - How does perfectionism affect athlete mental health? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] - How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] 816adt1h6bdbikhktqesrw5egpno9zg 2823549 2823523 2026-08-20T06:03:29Z U3275908 3108582 /* Motivation */ added username to topic 2823549 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury/]] - How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport? {{ME-By|Tammysaurus}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation/|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] - What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] - What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|U3259641}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] - How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|U3280250}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? - U3275908 # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Mame}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] - How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Perfectionism and athlete mental health/]] - How does perfectionism affect athlete mental health? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] - How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] fvv85jrrsq41u6jm2p4lx6clwq722d8 2823552 2823549 2026-08-20T06:05:27Z U3275908 3108582 /* Motivation */ added username to topic 2823552 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Adolescent risk-taking and reward-system development/]] - How does reward circuit maturation influence adolescent sensation-seeking and impulsive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280843}} # [[/Akrasia/]] - Why do people act against their better judgement? {{ME-By|U3269672}} # [[/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation/]] - How does artificial intelligence influence students’ motivation to learn, engage, and achieve? {{ME-By|U3280097}} # [[/Attachment styles and relatedness motivation/]] - How do attachment styles affect the need for relatedness? {{ME-By|HawaSA}} # [[/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury/]] - How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport? {{ME-By|Tammysaurus}} # [[/Automaticity and goal pursuit/]] - How do habits and environmental cues drive unconscious goal pursuit? {{ME-By|Revial76}} # [[/Basal ganglia and motivation/]] - What is the role of the basal ganglia in motivated behaviour? {{ME-By|U3233213}} # [[/Building therapeutic alliance/]] - What psychological factors contribute to the development of a strong therapeutic alliance? {{ME-By|Amirrorslens}} # [[/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation/]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? {{ME-By|U3275984}} # [[/Citizen science motivation/]] - What motivates participation in citizen science projects? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Competence motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Consumer emotion measurement/]] - How can consumer emotion be measured? {{ME-By|Sienna33309}} # [[/Creative inspiration and effort/]] - How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Deliberative vs implemental mindset/]] - What are the motivational and cognitive differences between deliberative and implemental mindsets? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Developing a growth mindset/]] - How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained? {{ME-By|LMM26}} # [[/Dopamine and reward prediction/]] - How does dopamine affect the anticipation of rewards and subsequent emotional responses? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making/]] - How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/End-of-history illusion and motivation/]] - How does the EOHI influence motivation and what strategies mitigate its impact? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/ERG theory and motivation/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory and how does it explain human motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure/]] - How does epistematic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives? {{ME-By|U3221734}} # [[/Exercise gamification motivation/]] - How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|U3260591}} # [[/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation/|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation]] - What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation? {{ME-By|StudentUC2026}} # [[/Extended process model of emotion regulation/]] - What is the extended process model and how does it explain how people regulate emotions? {{ME-By|U3259641}} # [[/Feedback literacy/]] - What is feedback literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Fogg behaviour model/]] - How can the FBM be applied to understanding and changing behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Functional motives theory and environmental activism/]] - How does functional motives theory explain the motivations behind environmental activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Future orientation and criminal behaviour/]] - How does future orientation influence the risk of criminal activity? {{ME-By|U3275899}} # [[/Game of dice task and decision-making/]] - What does the game of dice task reveal about risk-based decision-making? {{ME-By|U3216724}} # [[/Gender and achievement motivation/]] - How does gender shape where, how, and under what conditions achievement motivation is expressed? {{ME-By|U3242837}} # [[/Generativity/]] - What is generativity and how does it impact behaviour and life outcomes? {{ME-By|Monuc9}} # [[/Getting started/]] - Why is task initiation difficult and how to overcome it? {{ME-By|U3286643}} # [[/Goal striving dynamics/]] - What is the role of pushing and coasting in goal striving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Hygiene motivation/]] - What motivates maintenance of personal hygiene? {{ME-By|U3275940}} # [[/Hypothalamus and homeostatic motivation/]] - How do hypothalamic circuits regulate hunger, thirst, and other survival-related motivations? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking/]] - What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour? {{ME-By|Reillyu3280706}} # [[/Indigenous Australian role models and motivation/]] - How do role models influence aspirations, identity development, and motivation among Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Jshottt}} # [[/Interrogation and compliance/]] - What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation? {{ME-By|U3283643}} # [[/Investment model of commitment and social motivation/]] - How does the investment model of commitment relate to social motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Lifelong learning motivation/]] - What motivates lifelong learning? {{ME-By|U3280251}} # [[/Machiavellian motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism? {{ME-By|Mim0502}} # [[/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation/]] - What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? {{ME-By|U3280499}} # [[/Metacognitive monitoring and productivity/]] - How does metacognitive monitoring influence goal attainment and productivity? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mindsets and stigma/]] - What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma? {{ME-By|U3275909}} # [[/Motivations for using sex work services/]] - What motivates use of sex work services? {{ME-By|U3261236}} # [[/Motivating virtual teams/]] - How can motivation in virtual teams be optimised? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Motivational effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the motivational effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians?{{ME-By|U3183521}} # [[/Need to love and be loved/]] - How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3280743}} # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation be motivated and behaviour changed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? # [[/Overconfidence in decision-making/]] - How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making? {{ME-By|U3280250}} # [[/Parental educational aspirations and student achievement/]] - How do parental aspirations shape children’s academic motivation and performance? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Parental motivations for homeschooling/]] - What motivates parents to homeschool their children? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Perfectionism and procrastination/]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|U3222012}} # [[/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine/]] - How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? u3284308 # [[/Possible selves and goal pursuit/]] - How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour? {{ME-By|Jack4234}} # [[/Power motivation in leadership/]] - How does power motivation influence leadership styles and effectiveness? {{ME-By|PsychstudentUniversity!}} # [[/Prevention versus promotion mindset/]] - What are the motivational differences between prevention and promotion mindsets? {{ME-By|Bronte.H}} # [[/Protection motivation theory and environmental behaviour/]] - How does protection motivation theory explain engagement in pro-environmental behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Relatedness motivation in self-determination theory/]] - How does the need for relatedness function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Retirement motivation/]] - What motivates retirement from work? U3261207 # [[/Role-play and communication skills training/]] - How does role-play facilitate the development of effective communication skills? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Scarcity versus abundance mindset/]] - How do scarcity and abundance mindsets develop and what are the motivational consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-concept and motivation/]] - How does self-concept relate to motivation? {{ME-By|U3253363}} # [[/Self-determination theory and dementia care/]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? {{ME-By|Ella Kay244}} # [[/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness shape psychological adjustment after military service? {{ME-By|U3246286}} # [[/Self-determination theory and physical activity/]] - How do autonomy, competence, and relatedness predict engagement in physical activity and exercise adherence? - [[User:U3275908|U3275908]] # [[/Self-determination theory and social media use/]] - How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement? {{ME-By|GraceInMind}} # [[/Sensation-seeking and dopamine/]] - What is the neurobiological relationship between sensation-seeking and dopamine? {{ME-By|SunnySideUp1300}} # [[/Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns/]] - How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? {{ME-By|U3236349}} # [[/Sex work motivation/]] - What motivates sex work and how does this impact worker experiences? {{ME-By|U3261376}} # [[/Social dominance and power motivation/]] - What is the relationship between social dominance and power motivation? {{ME-By|U3284302}} # [[/Subcortical structures and motivational drive/]] - How do subcortical brain regions generate basic motivational impulses and energy? {{ME-By|U3281503}} # [[/Sun exposure and protection motivation/]] - What motivates sun exposure and protection behaviours? {{ME-By|U3188047}} # [[/Surrender motivation/]] - What is the motivational state of surrender and what are its impacts? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/The quiet ego and motivation/]] - How does a quiet ego balance self-interest with concern for others? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Thermoregulation and motivation/]] - How does the drive to maintain body temperature influence behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Tonic-phasic model of dopamine regulation/]] - What is the tonic/phasic model of dopamine regulation and how does affect behaviour? {{ME-By|User Mame}} # [[/Types of impulsivity/]] - What are the different types of impulsivity and how do they affect motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Value congruence and motivation/]] - How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? {{ME-By|U3275775}} # [[/Volunteer counsellor motivation/]] - What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors? {{ME-By|J.M.A Watson}} # [[/Windfall gain effect/]] - How doe unexpected wealth influence behaviour and decision-making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Youth environmental activism motivation/]] - What motivates young people to engage in environmental activism? {{ME-By|SJPiper}} ==Emotion== # [[/Active versus passive social media use/]] - How do different patterns of social media engagement influence emotions and psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3282656}} # [[/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection/]] - When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress? {{ME-By|U3211150}} # [[/Affect heuristic/]] - What is the affect heuristic and how does it influence decision making? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Alcohol use for emotion regulation/]] - Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions? {{ME-By|U3284266}} # [[/Apocalyptic fear/]] - What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with? {{ME-By|LazPulch}} # [[/Awe and the diminished self/]] - How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Awe and nature/]] - What is the relationship between awe and nature? {{ME-By|U3269915}} # [[/Biofeedback and emotion regulation/]] - How does biofeedback help individuals monitor and regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Body neutrality and emotional well-being/]] - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being? {{ME-By|AmyUniversity}} # [[/Breathing exercises and relaxation/]] - How can breathing exercises promote relaxation? {{ME-By|E3297976}} # [[/Cancer screening and emotion/]] - How do emotions such as fear, anxiety, and relief influence cancer screening uptake? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience/]] - How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity? {{ME-By|u3068253}} # [[/Cognitive versus affective empathy/]] - What are the differences between cognitive and affective empathy and how do they contribute to prosociality? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Dark empathy/]] - What is dark empathy, what are its consequences, and what can be done to address it? {{ME-By|U3228742}} # [[/Dreams and emotional problem-solving/]] - How do REM dreams contribute to emotional processing and adaptive coping? {{ME-By|U3270398}} # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Eco-emotions/]] - What are eco-emotions, how do they influence behaviour, and how can they be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotional effects of incarceration on Indigenous Australians/]] - What are the emotional effects of incarcertation on Indigenous Australians? {{ME-By|Lilfish215}} # [[/Emotional expressivity/]] - What is emotional expressivity, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? {{ME-By|U3283812}} # [[/Emotional flooding in relationships/]] - Why does emotional flooding occur, how does it affect relationships, and what can be done about it? {{ME-By|Tofu05}} # [[/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing/]] - How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing? {{ME-By|u3239236}} # [[/Emotional role-playing/]] - How does role-playing influence emotional experience, expression, and regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion detection using artificial intelligence/]] - How can emotion be detected using artificial intelligence? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion dysregulation/]] - What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3285438}} # [[/Emotion regulation ability and strategy/]] - How do ability and strategy differ in shaping emotion regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Emotion regulation through exercise/]] - How do people use exercise to regulate their emotional states? {{ME-By|KB3250298}} # [[/Emotions in activism/]] - How do emotions motivate, shape, and sustain activism? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Empathy and jury decision-making/]] - How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions? {{ME-By|U3254168}} # [[/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion/]] - How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion? {{ME-By|U3143751}} # [[/Enjoyment and learning/]] - How does enjoyment influence learning? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Envy in the workplace/]] - What role does envy play in workplace behaviour? {{ME-By|Flickstar888}} # [[/Environmental volunteering and wellbeing/]] - How does participation in environmental volunteering influence volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Excitement as an emotion/]] - What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3292769}} # [[/Fear extinction/]] - What psychological and neural processes underlie the extinction of fear responses? {{ME-By|ChillPsychGuy0607}} # [[/Focalism in affective forecasting/]] - What is focalism and how does it bias predictions about future emotional experiences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Growth mindset and psychological wellbeing/]] - How does a growth mindset influence psychological wellbeing? {{ME-By|Avj.06}} # [[/Human trust of robots/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of robots? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Identify exploration through role-playing games/]] - How do role-playing games facilitate identity exploration and self-discovery? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment/]] - How does it work and what are the effects? {{ME-By|StretchBeyond}} # [[/Indigenous Australian funeral practices and grieving/]] - How do Indigenous Australian funeral practices assist with grieving? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion/]] - How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Introjection and guilt-based motivation/]] - What role do shame and guilt play in introjected forms of behavioural regulation? {{ME-By|U3330981}} # [[/Irritability/]] - What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|U3275992}} # [[/Love styles and relationships/]] - How do love styles influence relationship satisfaction and stability? {{ME-By|U3246588}} # [[/Melatonin and seasonal mood/]] - What role does melatonin play in seasonal mood changes? {{ME-By|U3224236{{ME-By| # [[/Mental health first aid and helping behaviour/]] - What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem? {{ME-By|Katelyn Rod}} # [[/Mindfulness and nature connectedness/]] - How does mindfulness influence nature connectedness? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Mood and cognitive performance/]] - How do different mood states impact attention, memory, and problem solving? {{ME-By|U3283879}} # [[/Moodiness/]] - What is moodiness, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}} # [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}} # [[/Neurofeedback and emotional regulation/]] - How can neurofeedback influence enhance emotional regulation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Noise and emotion/]] - How do different types of noise affect emotional experience and wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Opponent process theory and emotion/]] - What role do opposing affective states play in emotional experience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}} # [[/Perfectionism and athlete mental health/]] - How does perfectionism affect athlete mental health? {{ME-By|Leilab23}} # [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}} # [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}} # [[/Psychological preparation for natural disasters/]] - How can people psychologically prepare for natural disasters? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Psychological safety and feedback uptake/]] - How does psychological safety influence openness to feedback? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Remote work and well-being/]] - How does remote work influence employee well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}} # [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}} # [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}} # [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}} # [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}} # [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}} # [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}} # [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Spirituality and resilience/]] - What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Subjective wellbeing homeostasis theory/]] - How does homeostatic theory explain the stability and regulation of subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}} # [[/Theory of positive disintegration and personal growth/]] - What is the TPD and how can it be applied to personal growth? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust in artificial intelligence/]] - What psychological factors shape human trust of artificial intelligence systems? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteer's subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}} # [[/Wayfinding and affective experience/]] - How do emotions influence navigation and spatial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}} # [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}} # [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}} # [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}} # [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reinforcement sensitivity theory/]] - How does reinforcement sensitivity theory explain individual differences in motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How do reward prediction errors influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Social and emotional well-being in Indigenous Australians/]] - How does the holistic social and emotional well-being model reframe Indigenous Australian health and well-being? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Strengths-based Indigenous Australian psychology/]] - How can strengths-based perspectives enhance understanding of Indigenous motivation and emotion? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|User Name}} # [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|User Name}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] lnwgjkvin1v54mnmbpontkhk4q6so6v 1 323755 2823487 2773428 2026-08-20T04:08:07Z Katelyn Rod 3106860 /* Recommendations for structuring */ new section 2823487 wikitext text/x-wiki == Heading casing == {| style="float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;" |- | [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]] | {{#if:|Hi [[User:{{{1}}}|{{{1}}}]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:<br> <big><big>Self-determination theory</big></big> rather than <big><big>Self-Determination Theory</big></big> Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:56, 24 August 2025 (UTC) |} <!-- Official topic development feedback --> :{{ping|A.michelle27}} This is a reminder about the heading casing -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 07:10, 2 October 2025 (UTC) {{METF/2025 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and/or sub-title not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed) |2= <!-- Headings --> # See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]] <!-- Heading structure --> # Excellent – Well developed 2-level heading structure. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # I suggest selecting an image that matches the scenario and including in the feature box <!-- Description --> # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population <!-- Focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development of key points # The most important section is "Connection between future orientation and criminal behaviour"; expand this section and abbreviate the preceeding sections <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples <!-- Citations --> # Excellent use of citations <!-- Other --> # For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings # ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title. # Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a "down" style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] # Use APA style for citations (e.g., use & within parentheses) <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion (the most important section) hasn't been developed # What might the take-home, practical messages be? (What are the answer(s) to the question(s) in the sub-title and/or focus questions?) |5= <!-- Figure --> # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear # A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Caption --> # Add Figure caption(s) - include '''Figure X'''. ... <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider use of more scenarios/examples/case studies <!-- Quiz --> # Excellent use of quiz question(s) <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using tables to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Very good <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## capitalisation ## use dois where available instead of other links |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Very good ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]) ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## Good ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Include source in brackets after link ## Use alphabetical order |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Inaccessible link provided to [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making: #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 02]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 10:56, 24 August 2025 (UTC) == suggestions == great job Your chapter clearly shows why future orientation is important for young people and how it can help prevent criminal behaviour.You use research and studies well to explain how programs like mentoring, goal-setting, and education can make a real difference. You consider many factors, including psychological, social, and environmental influences, which makes your work well-rounded.The chapter gives practical ideas that could help communities, schools, and policymakers support young people. I would gibe suggestion on giving some real-life examples of programs or success stories to make the social impact more concrete.Your chapter does a great job showing how thinking about the future can help young people make better choices and support safer, stronger communities. With a few small changes—like adding examples and simplifying some parts—it could be even stronger and really shine. [[User:Shahad ALKADAH|Shahad ALKADAH]] ([[User talk:Shahad ALKADAH|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shahad ALKADAH|contribs]]) 06:01, 28 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2025 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* overuse of genAI—express more in your own words; watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]] #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in edit summaries with links to the conversation sources; this violates academic integrity principles <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FFuture_orientation_and_criminal_behaviour&diff=2763772&oldid=2758702 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Basic <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature --> # Scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are basic # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being better aligned with the top-level headings ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Basic depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Insufficient review of relevant research # Greater emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses would be ideal # More detail about key studies would be ideal # In many places, there is insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Remind the reader about the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ## The target audience is international, not domestic. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## Reduce background material; expand "Connection between future orientation and criminal behaviour" <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, Studiosity, and/or peer feedback ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) <!-- Written expression – Proofreading --> # Proofreading ## More proofreading is needed (e.g., fix punctuation and typographical errors) to bring the quality of written expression closer to a professional standard <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] ### If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: #### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or #### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ### Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ### Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ### Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Include hyperlinked dois (for 1-click access) ### All references need citation and vice-versa ### Lots of checking and correcting needed; not professional |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Basic use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # No use of figure(s) # No use of table(s) # No use of feature box(es) beyond scenario # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples beyond scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Basic use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~2 logged, useful, mostly minor contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~1 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 20:37, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == Recommendations for structuring == Hey, I just wanted to make a recommendation for your structuring to help the flow and readability of your book chapter. I would recommend that you define the concept of future orientation and discuss the influences on future orientation in a new heading before discussing the psychological understanding of future orientation. As it currently stands your definition and information about influences is nested within psychological understanding; by creating a new heading and moving this content earlier in your chapter you can help your readers contextualise and understand what you are discussing within your chapter. [[User:Katelyn Rod|Katelyn Rod]] ([[User talk:Katelyn Rod|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Katelyn Rod|contribs]]) 04:08, 20 August 2026 (UTC) hewwwuvhx5katoin2tl0ox4hw76iul3 0 329548 2823105 2822447 2026-08-19T12:21:52Z Athene241 3100061 /* Data */ 2823105 wikitext text/x-wiki {{mathematics}} '''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' > 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the "[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b''" [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, "string" is a subsequence of "meistersinger". In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, "abc" is not a subsequence of "cbacacba", since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]]) Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''_''b'' := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' > 1 (You can draw this partial ordering as a [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s), this set is called '''Athena set''', and the prime numbers in this set are called '''Athena primes'''. By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] "is a subsequence of", which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the Athena set in every base ''b'' must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], and every base ''b'' ≥ 2 has only finitely many Athena primes, e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), the Athena set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s (they are exactly the Athena primes in decimal (base ''b'' = 10)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}. Determining the set of the minimal elements of a arbitrary set of strings under the subsequence ordering is in general [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolvable]], and can be difficult even when this set is relatively simple (such as the base ''b'' representations of the prime numbers > ''b''). Although the set ''M''(''S'') of minimal strings is necessarily [[:w:Finite set|finite]], determining it explicitly for a given ''S'' can be a difficult computational problem. We use some [[:w:Number theory|numbertheoretic]] [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic]]s to [[:w:Computing|compute]] ''M''(''L''_''b''), where ''L''_''b'' is the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of [[:w:Radix|base]]-''b'' representations of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s which are [[:w:Greater than|>]] ''b'', for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36. For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. "''xy''⁺''z''" in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes > ''b'' or probable primes > ''b'' with length ≤ 100000. == Solve the problem == To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime > ''b'' in all such families. We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') "linear" families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows: * 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''. * 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by: * 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''. * 2.2. If possible, simplify the family. * 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers > ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''. * 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): ''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991} ''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9} and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1 and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1 221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L'' none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L'' and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes > base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed etc. Since the number of possible (first digit,last digit) (also called (initial digit,final digit)) combos ([[:w:Ordered pair|ordered pair]]s) of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' is (''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(''b'') (all digits except 0 can be the first digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''b''−1 possible digits), but only the digits coprime to ''b'' can be the last digit of a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (thus ''eulerphi''(''b'') possible digits), and by the [[:w:Rule of product|rule of product]], there are (''b''−1)×''eulerphi''(''b'') choices of the (first digit,last digit) combo, also, both "numbers of Athena primes in base ''b''" and "length of the largest Athena prime in base ''b''" are [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|roughly]] ''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}. Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') * If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and the string ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. * If ''y''₁ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₂ ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''₁ ≠ ''y''₂ and both the strings ''xy''₁''y''₂''z'' and ''xy''₂''y''₁''z'' represent a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime > ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₁}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''₂}''z''. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * 2221 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1. * 227 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7. * 449 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9. * Both 5051 and 5501 are primes > 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1. * 8501 is a prime > 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1. * 887 is a prime > 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime > 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7. * 349 and 449 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9. * 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes > 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes > 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}. If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''₁, ''y''₂, ..., ''y''_''n''}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''₁{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''₂{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''_''n''{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]]. If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list. e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10): * The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027. * The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551. * The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551. There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the Athena set in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''). The following is a "[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]" that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement: # ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]'' # while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do # choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L'' # ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''} # ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''}) In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''₁{''L''₂}''L''₃, where each of ''L''₁, ''L''₂, ''L''₃ is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not. Thus, the [[:w:Time complexity|time complexity]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be ''[[:w:Big O notation|O]]''(''[[:w:E (mathematical_constant)|e]]''^{''[[:w:Euler's constant|γ]]''×(''b''−1)×''[[:w:Euler's totient function|eulerphi]]''(*b*)}), and the [[:w:CPU time|CPU time]] of the Athena problem in base ''b'' may be longer than [[:w:Age of the universe|the age of the universe]] for bases ''b'' = 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, also, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]). To solve the Athena problem (i.e. to compute the Athena set), we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime > ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2^''n''−2 strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length > (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'' (references: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures-powers2.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjecture-reserves.htm, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjecture-reserves.htm), in fact, Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' and the Riesel problem base ''b'' with ''k'' < ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' < ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is < ''b'', Athena problem base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem base ''b'' or the Riesel problem base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''^''n''+1 and ''k''×''b''^''n''−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b'', also, Athena problem base ''b'' covers finding the smallest prime of these forms in base ''b'' (or proving that such prime does not exist): (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1) (for this form, ''n'' must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt, https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/379, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableRepunitGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084740, https://oeis.org/A084738, https://oeis.org/A128164, https://oeis.org/A285642; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A065854, https://oeis.org/A279068), ''b''^''n''+1 (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20231002190634/http://yves.gallot.pagesperso-orange.fr/primes/index.html, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableFermatGFBB.php, https://oeis.org/A079706, https://oeis.org/A084712, https://oeis.org/A228101), (''b''^''n''+1)/2 (for odd ''b'') (for this form, ''n'' must be power of 2, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt), (''sqrt''(''b'')×''b''^''n''+1)/(''sqrt''(''b'')+1) (for square ''b'') (for this form, 2×''n''+1 must be prime, and we want ''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepuP.txt, http://www.primenumbers.net/Henri/us/MersFermus.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/488, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWagstaffGen.php, https://oeis.org/A084742, https://oeis.org/A084741; or for bases ''b'' with ''sqrt''(''b'') prime: https://oeis.org/A065507), ((''b''−2)×''b''^''n''+1)/(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (reference of this form: https://oeis.org/A243404), 2×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=6918, https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=19725, https://oeis.org/A119624), 2×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://www.mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24576, https://www.mersenneforum.org/attachment.php?attachmentid=20976&d=1567314217, https://oeis.org/A119591), ''b''^''n''+2 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://oeis.org/A138066, https://oeis.org/A084713, https://oeis.org/A138067), ''b''^''n''−2 (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_887.htm, https://oeis.org/A250200, https://oeis.org/A255707, https://oeis.org/A084714; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A292201), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''+1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MP.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/477, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams2.php, https://oeis.org/A305531; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A087139), (''b''−1)×''b''^''n''−1 (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt, http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/Williams-primes-MM.htm, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/484, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams1.php; or for prime bases ''b'': https://oeis.org/A122396), ''b''^''n''+(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 1) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/795, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams6.php, https://oeis.org/A076845, https://oeis.org/A076846, https://oeis.org/A078178, https://oeis.org/A078179), ''b''^''n''−(''b''−1) (''n'' ≥ 2) (references of this form: http://www.bitman.name/math/table/792, https://pzktupel.de/Primetables/TableWilliams5.php, https://oeis.org/A113516, https://oeis.org/A343589; or for prime bases ''b'': https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL3/mccranie.html, http://www.bitman.name/math/table/435)): Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''_''n''''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0? Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''⁴+4×''y''⁴]]), or combine of them, e.g. * The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5 * The base 11 family 2{5}: Always divisible by 2 or 3 * The base 14 family B{0}1: Always divisible by 3 or 5 * The base 13 family 95{0}3: Always divisible by 5, 7, or 17 * The base 16 family {4}D: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13 * The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17 * The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79 * The base 9 family {1}: Can be written as (9^''n''−1)/8 and can be factored as (3^''n''−1) × (3^''n''+1) / 8 * The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8^''n''+1 and can be factored as (2^''n''+1) × (4^''n''−2^''n''+1) * The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) * The base 16 family 1{5}: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−1)/3 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (2×3^''n''+1) / 3 * The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16^''n''−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−7) × (2×3^''n''+7) / 15 * The base 27 family 7{Q}: Can be written as 8×27^''n''−1 and can be factored as (2×3^''n''−1) × (4×9^''n''+2×3^''n''+1) * The base 27 family 9{G}: Can be written as (125×27^''n''−8)/13 and can be factored as (5×3^''n''−2) × (25×9^''n''+10×3^''n''+4) * The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16^''n''+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4^''n''−2×2^''n''+1) × (2×4^''n''+2×2^''n''+1) / 5 * The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14^''n''/2−1) × (3×14^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12^''n''−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12^''n''/2−5) × (12^''n''/2+5) if ''n'' is even * The base 14 family {D}5: Can be written as 14^''n''−9, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (14^''n''/2−3) × (14^''n''/2+3) if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17^''n''/2−3) × (5×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 17 family 7{9}: Can be written as (121×17^''n''−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (11×17^''n''/2−3) × (11×17^''n''/2+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even * The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19^''n''−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19^''n''/2−1) × (2×19^''n''/2+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even * The base 24 family 3{N}: Can be written as 4×24^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×24^''n''/2−1) × (2×24^''n''/2+1) if ''n'' is even * The base 24 family 5{N}: Can be written as 6×24^''n''−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is even and can be factored as (12×24^{(''n''−1)/2}−1) × (12×24^{(''n''−1)/2}+1) if ''n'' is odd By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes > ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes > ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime, since technically, probable primality tests were used to show this (which have a ''very'' small chance of making an error, see https://t5k.org/notes/prp_prob.html) because all known primality tests run far too slowly to run on numbers of this size unless either [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1] or [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1] (or both) can be ≥ 1/3 factored). '''Athena conjecture''': If family ''xy''_''n''''z'' (with fixed strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), fixed digit ''y'', and variable ''n'') in base ''b'' (with fixed ''b'' ≥ 2) (''x'' does not start with the digit 0, ''z'' ends with a digit which coprime to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty) cannot be proven to only contain composites or only contain finitely many primes (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then family ''xy''_''n''''z'' in base ''b'' contains infinitely many primes (this is equivalent to: If form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) (with fixed integers ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2, ''c'' ≠ 0 (with ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1 and ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1), and variable ''n'') cannot be proven to only contain composites or only contain finitely many primes (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), then form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) contains infinitely many primes) The numbers in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') are of the form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) for some fixed ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' such that ''a'' ≥ 1, ''b'' ≥ 2 (''b'' is the base), ''c'' ≠ 0, ''gcd''(''a'',''c'') = 1, ''gcd''(''b'',''c'') = 1. Except in the [[:w:Special case|special case]] ''c'' = ±1 and ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) = 1 (the only case which [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1] or [https://t5k.org/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1] is [[:w:Triviality (mathematics)|trivially]] fully factored), when ''n'' is large the known [[:w:Primality test|primality test]]s for such a number are too inefficient to run (since they are [https://t5k.org/glossary/xpage/OrdinaryPrime.html ordinary primes]). In this case one must resort to a [[:w:Probabilistic algorithm|probable]] primality test such as a [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]] or a [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]], unless a divisor of the number can be found. Since we are testing many numbers in an [[:w:Exponential growth|exponential sequence]], it is possible to use a sieving process to find divisors rather than using [[:w:Trial division|trial division]]. To do this, we made use of Geoffrey Reynolds' ''srsieve'' software (download: https://pzktupel.de/Software/srsieve_1.1.4.7z). This program uses the [[:w:Baby-step giant-step|baby-step giant-step]] [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] to find all primes ''p'' which divide ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'' where ''p'' and ''n'' lie in a [[:w:Interval_(mathematics)|specified range]]. Since this program cannot handle the general case (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) when ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) > 1 we only used it to sieve the sequence ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'' for primes ''p'' not dividing ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1), and initialized the list of candidates to not include ''n'' for which there is some prime ''p'' dividing ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) for which ''p'' dividing (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1). The program had to be modified slightly to remove a check which would prevent it from running in the case when ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' were all odd (since then 2 divides ''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'', but 2 may not divide (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)). Once the numbers with small divisors had been removed, it remained to test the remaining numbers using a probable primality test. For this we used the software ''LLR'' by Jean Penné. (download: http://jpenne.free.fr/index2.html). Although undocumented, it is possible to run this program on numbers of the form (''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) when ''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1) > 1, so this program required no modifications. A script was also written which allowed one to run ''srsieve'' while ''LLR'' was testing the remaining candidates, so that when a divisor was found by srsieve on a number which had not yet been tested by ''LLR'' it would be removed from the list of candidates. For the primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for the "easy" bases (bases ''b'' with ≤ 150 primes > 10²⁹⁹ (base ''b'' = 26 has 83 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 3 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 36 has 75 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 4 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 17 has 99 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 18 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 21 has 80 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 12 unsolved families, base ''b'' = 19 has 201 known primes > 10²⁹⁹ and 23 unsolved families), i.e. bases *b* = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36), we employed ''CM'' by Andreas Enge (download: https://www.multiprecision.org/cm/download.html), an elliptic curve primality proving implementation. == Data == These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large Athena primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all Athena primes < 10²⁵⁰⁰⁰ for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others > 10²⁹⁹ are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]]) The Athena primes > 10²⁹⁹ which are proven primes with ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving includes the Athena primes whose ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored: * the 3176th Athena prime in base 13, 81010₄₁₅1, which equals 17746×13⁴¹⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003590431555, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431556&open=ecm * the 3177th Athena prime in base 13, 8110₄₃₅1, which equals 1366×13⁴³⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000002373259109, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002373259124&open=ecm * the 3188th Athena prime in base 13, 930₁₅₅₁1, which equals 120×13¹⁵⁵²+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961452, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961453&open=ecm * the 3191st Athena prime in base 13, 390₆₂₆₆1, which equals 48×13⁶²⁶⁷+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961441, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961451&open=ecm * the 649th Athena prime in base 14, 34D₇₀₈, which equals 47×14⁷⁰⁸−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001540144903, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144907&open=ecm * the 650th Athena prime in base 14, 4D₁₉₆₉₈, which equals 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000884560233, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560625&open=ecm * the 2335th Athena prime in base 16, 88F₅₄₅, which equals 137×16⁵⁴⁵−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000413679658, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413877337&open=ecm * the 10317th Athena prime in base 17, 5A70₂₇₄1, which equals 1622×17²⁷⁵+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003782940709, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003782941930&open=ecm * the 10359th Athena prime in base 17, 9D0₁₀₆₇1, which equals 166×17¹⁰⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961369, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961370&open=ecm * the 10370th Athena prime in base 17, A0₁₃₅₅1, which equals 10×17¹³⁵⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000034167087, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000271866825&open=ecm * the 10386th Athena prime in base 17, 530₄₈₆₇1, which equals 88×17⁴⁸⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000762660735, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000762660737&open=ecm * the 10408th Athena prime in base 17, 570₅₁₃₁₀1, which equals 92×17⁵¹³¹¹+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000765961389, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785469616&open=ecm * the 10412th Athena prime in base 17, 970₁₆₆₀₄₇1, which equals 160×17¹⁶⁶⁰⁴⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, but it has no helper file in ''factordb'' since it is too large (>10¹⁹⁹⁹⁹⁹) to be PRP-tested in ''factordb'', for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000890817312&open=ecm * the 10413th Athena prime in base 17, F70₁₈₆₇₆₇1, which equals 262×17¹⁸⁶⁷⁶⁸+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, but it has no helper file in ''factordb'' since it is too large (>10¹⁹⁹⁹⁹⁹) to be PRP-tested in ''factordb'', for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000890817317&open=ecm * the 3310th Athena prime in base 20, JCJ₆₂₉, which equals 393×20⁶²⁹−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001559454258, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454271&open=ecm * the 13373rd Athena prime in base 21, 5D0₁₉₈₄₈1, which equals 118×21¹⁹⁸⁴⁹+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000777265872, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785469310&open=ecm * the 3408th Athena prime in base 24, 88N₅₉₅₁, which equals 201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000003593275880, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593373246&open=ecm * the 25509th Athena prime in base 28, EB0₄₀₅1, which equals 403×28⁴⁰⁶+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000001534442374, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001534442380&open=ecm * the 2616th Athena prime in base 30, C0₁₀₂₂1, which equals 12×30¹⁰²³+1, ''N''−1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000785448736, for the factorization of ''N''−1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448737&open=ecm * the 2619th Athena prime in base 30, OT₃₄₂₀₅, which equals 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000800812865, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819405041&open=ecm * the 35237th Athena prime in base 36, P8Z₃₉₀, which equals 909×36³⁹⁰−1, ''N''+1 is trivially fully factored, for its helper file in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/helper.php?id=1100000000764100228, for the factorization of ''N''+1 in ''factordb'' see http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000764100231&open=ecm and the Athena primes whose ''N''−1 or ''N''+1 is ≥ 1/3 factored: (''R''_''n''(''b'') means the [[:w:Repunit|repunit]] in base ''b'' with length ''n''), i.e. ''R''_''n''(''b'') = (''b''^''n''−1)/(''b''−1), "''S''_''n''(''b'')" means ''b''^''n''+1) * the 3168th Athena prime in base 13, 9₃₀₈1, ''N''−1 is 117×''R''₃₀₈(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13³⁰⁸−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13³⁰⁸−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=308&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13³⁰⁸−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=308&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 3179th Athena prime in base 13, B₅₆₃C, ''N''−1 is 11×''R''₅₆₄(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13⁵⁶⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13⁵⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=564&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13⁵⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=564&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 3180th Athena prime in base 13, 1B₅₇₆, ''N''−1 is 23×''R''₅₇₆(13), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 13⁵⁷⁶−1, and for the algebraic factors of 13⁵⁷⁶−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=13&Exp=576&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 13⁵⁷⁶−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&Exp=576&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 10320th Athena prime in base 17, 9₂₉₂1, ''N''−1 is 153×''R''₂₉₂(17), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 17²⁹²−1, and for the algebraic factors of 17²⁹²−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=17&Exp=292&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 17²⁹²−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=17&Exp=292&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 13304th Athena prime in base 21, 7₂₃₀1, ''N''−1 is 147×''R''₂₃₀(21), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 21²³⁰−1, and for the algebraic factors of 21²³⁰−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=21&Exp=230&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 21²³⁰−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=21&Exp=230&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 13355th Athena prime in base 21, 3₁₀₆₃2, ''N''+1 is 3×''R''₁₀₆₄(21), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=21&Exp=1064&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 21¹⁰⁶⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=21&Exp=1064&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 25199th Athena prime in base 26, 9K₃₄₃AP, ''N''+1 is 6370×''R''₃₄₄(26), thus factor ''N''+1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 26³⁴⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 26³⁴⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=26&Exp=344&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 26³⁴⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=26&Exp=344&c0=-&EN=&LM= * the 25200th Athena prime in base 26, 8₃₅₄1, ''N''−1 is 208×''R''₃₅₄(26), thus factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor the Cunningham number 26³⁵⁴−1, and for the algebraic factors of 26³⁵⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showExplorer?Base=26&Exp=354&LBIDPMList=A&LBIDLODList=D, and for the prime factorization of 26³⁵⁴−1, see http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=26&Exp=354&c0=-&EN=&LM= All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], "{}" means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123₄567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal). Base 2: 1 Athena prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11} Base 3: 3 Athena primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111} Base 4: 5 Athena primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221} Base 5: 22 Athena primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10₉₃13, and its algebraic form is 5⁹⁵+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013} Base 6: 11 Athena primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041} Base 7: 71 Athena primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3₁₆1, and its algebraic form is (7¹⁷−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331} Base 8: 75 Athena primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4₂₂₀7, and its algebraic form is (4×8²²¹+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447} Base 9: 151 Athena primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30₁₁₅₈11, and its algebraic form is 3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011} Base 10: 77 Athena primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50₂₈27, and its algebraic form is 5×10³⁰+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} Base 11: 1068 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57₆₂₆₆₈), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57₆₂₆₆₈, and its algebraic form is (57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 11] Base 12: 106 Athena primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40₃₉77, and its algebraic form is 4×12⁴¹+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077} Base 13: 3197 Athena (probable) primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5₂₃₇₅₅C, 80₃₂₀₁₇111, 95₁₉₇₄₂₀, A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A, and its algebraic form is (41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 13] Base 14: 650 Athena primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D₁₉₆₉₈, and its algebraic form is 5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena primes base 14] Base 15: 1284 Athena primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7₁₅₅97, and its algebraic form is (15¹⁵⁷+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena primes base 15] Base 16: 2347 Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB₃₂₂₃₄, 4₇₂₇₈₅DD, 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF, and its algebraic form is (16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 16] Base 17: 10415 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 17] Base 18: 549 Athena primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0₆₂₆₈C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena primes base 18] Base 19: 31417 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 19] Base 20: 3314 Athena primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0₆₂₆₉D, and its algebraic form is 16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena primes base 20] Base 21: 13386 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 21] Base 22: 8003 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK₂₂₀₀₁5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK₂₂₀₀₁5, and its algebraic form is (251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 22] Base 23: 65178 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 23] Base 24: 3409 Athena primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N₈₁₂₉LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24⁸¹³¹−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena primes base 24] Base 25: 133639 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 25] Base 26: 25256 known Athena (probable) primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5₁₉₃₉₁6F, 7₂₀₂₇₉OL, LD0₂₀₉₇₅7, 6K₂₃₃₀₀5, J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB, M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB, 85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 26] Base 27: 102852 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 27] Base 28: 25528 known Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6₂₄₀₅₁LR, 5OA₃₁₂₃₈F, O4O₉₄₅₃₅9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 900000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 28] Base 29: 355242 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 29] Base 30: 2619 Athena (probable) primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0₂₄₆₀₈D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT₃₄₂₀₅, and its algebraic form is 25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena (probable) primes base 30] Base 31: 569323 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 31] Base 32: 168882 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 32] Base 33: 280012 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 33] Base 34: 184785 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 34] Base 35: 720002 known Athena (probable) primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for Athena problem base 35] Base 36: 35286 known Athena (probable) primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K₂₆₅₆₇Z, S0₇₅₀₀₇8H, P₈₁₉₉₃SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of known Athena (probable) primes base 36] == Condensed table for bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 == {|class="wikitable" ||''b''||number of Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||base-''b'' form of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' (write "''d''_''n''" if there are 5 or more (''n'') consecutive same digits ''d'')||length of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||length of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' in decimal||algebraic ((''a''×''b''^''n''+''c'')/''gcd''(''a''+''c'',''b''−1)) form of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||''factordb'' entry of the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b''||the top 10 known Athena primes (or probable primes, which are Athena primes assuming their primality) in base ''b'' written in base ''b'' (use lower case letters instead of upper case letters)||number of unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'' (all of these left families are linear families)||searching limit of length for the unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'' (if there are different searching limits for the unsolved families in the Athena problem in base ''b'', choose the lowest searching limit)|| |- ||2||1||11||2||1||3||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3&open=ecm||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3&base=2||0||–|| |- ||3||3||111<br>21<br>12||3<br>2<br>2||2<br>1<br>1||13<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=3<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=3<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||4||5||221<br>31<br>23<br>13<br>11||3<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||2<br>2<br>2<br>1<br>1||41<br>13<br>11<br>7<br>5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=41&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=7&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=41&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=7&base=4<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5&base=4<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||5||22||10₉₃13<br>300031<br>44441<br>33331<br>33001<br>30301<br>14444<br>10103<br>3101<br>414||96<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4<br>3||67<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>4<br>3<br>3<br>3||5⁹⁵+8<br>9391<br>3121<br>2341<br>2251<br>1951<br>1249<br>653<br>401<br>109||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9391&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=3121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2341&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2251&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1951&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1249&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=653&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=401&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=109&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000034686071&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9391&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=3121&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2341&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2251&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1951&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1249&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=653&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=401&base=5<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=109&base=5<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||6||11||40041<br>4441<br>4401<br>51<br>45<br>35<br>31<br>25<br>21<br>15||5<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||4<br>4<br>4<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2<br>2||5209<br>1033<br>1009<br>31<br>29<br>23<br>19<br>17<br>13<br>11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5209&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1033&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1009&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=31&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=29&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=23&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=19&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=17&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=13&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5209&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1033&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1009&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=31&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=29&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=23&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=19&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=17&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=13&base=6<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11&base=6<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||7||71||3₁₆1<br>510₇1<br>3₆01<br>1100021<br>531101<br>351101<br>300053<br>150001<br>100121<br>40054||17<br>10<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>5||15<br>9<br>7<br>6<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>5<br>4||(7¹⁷−5)/2<br>36×7⁸+1<br>(7⁸−47)/2<br>134471<br>91631<br>62819<br>50459<br>28813<br>16871<br>9643||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=116315256993601&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=207532837&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2882377&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=134471&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=91631&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=62819&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=50459&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=28813&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=16871&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=9643&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=116315256993601&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=207532837&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2882377&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=134471&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=91631&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=62819&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=50459&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=28813&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=16871&base=7<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=9643&base=7<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||8||75||4₂₂₀7<br>5₁₃25<br>7₁₂1<br>77774₆1<br>74₇1<br>4₈1<br>5₅025<br>5550525<br>5500525<br>4₅77||221<br>15<br>13<br>11<br>9<br>9<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||200<br>14<br>12<br>10<br>9<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7||(4×8²²¹+17)/7<br>(5×8¹⁵−173)/7<br>8¹³−7<br>(28669×8⁷−25)/7<br>(53×8⁸−25)/7<br>(4×8⁹−25)/7<br>(5×8⁸−2413)/7<br>1495381<br>1474901<br>(4×8⁷+185)/7||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=25131694349141&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=549755813881&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=8589035809&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=127027489&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=76695841&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=11983381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1495381&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1474901&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1198399&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000416605822&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=25131694349141&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=549755813881&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=8589035809&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=127027489&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=76695841&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=11983381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1495381&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1474901&base=8<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1198399&base=8<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||9||151||30₁₁₅₈11<br>27₆₈₆07<br>76₃₂₉2<br>561₃₆<br>10₂₅57<br>30₂₀51<br>8₁₉335<br>727₁₅07<br>51₁₃61<br>10₁₁507||1161<br>689<br>331<br>38<br>28<br>23<br>22<br>19<br>16<br>15||1108<br>657<br>316<br>37<br>26<br>22<br>21<br>19<br>16<br>14||3×9¹¹⁶⁰+10<br>(23×9⁶⁸⁸−511)/8<br>(31×9³³⁰−19)/4<br>(409×9³⁶−1)/8<br>9²⁷+52<br>3×9²²+46<br>9²²−454<br>(527×9¹⁷−511)/8<br>(41×9¹⁵+359)/8<br>9¹⁴+412||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001554010824&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002512830927&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000032261811&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495736583&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003446800389&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1055192051985121&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22876792455373&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002376318423&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495467486&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002359003642&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001554010824&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002512830927&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000032261811&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002495736583&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003446800389&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1055192051985121&base=9<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22876792455373&base=9<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||10||77||50₂₈27<br>5₁₁1<br>805₅1<br>66600049<br>66000049<br>60₅49<br>220₅1<br>5200007<br>946669<br>666649||31<br>12<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6||31<br>12<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>6<br>6||5×10³⁰+27<br>(5×10¹²−41)/9<br>(725×10⁶−41)/9<br>66600049<br>66000049<br>6×10⁷+49<br>22×10⁶+1<br>5200007<br>946669<br>666649||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000204142046&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=555555555551&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=80555551&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=66600049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=66000049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=60000049&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=22000001&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5200007&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=946669&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=666649&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000204142046&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=555555555551&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=80555551&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66600049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=66000049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=60000049&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=22000001&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5200007&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=946669&base=10<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=666649&base=10<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||11||1068||57₆₂₆₆₈<br>557₁₀₁₁<br>7₇₅₉44<br>A₇₁₃58<br>85₂₂₀05<br>507₂₀₆<br>5₁₆₁2A<br>50₁₂₆57<br>10₁₂₅51<br>326₁₂₂||62669<br>1013<br>761<br>715<br>223<br>208<br>163<br>129<br>128<br>124||65263<br>1055<br>793<br>745<br>233<br>217<br>170<br>134<br>133<br>129||(57×11⁶²⁶⁶⁸−7)/10<br>(607×11¹⁰¹¹−7)/10<br>(7×11⁷⁶¹−367)/10<br>11⁷¹⁵−58<br>(17×11²²²−111)/2<br>(557×11²⁰⁶−7)/10<br>(11¹⁶³−57)/2<br>5×11¹²⁸+62<br>11¹²⁷+56<br>(178×11¹²²−3)/5||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003573679860&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002361376522&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002505568840&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826769&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002518512744&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391585327&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632393378&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391531300&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826781&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003573679860&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002361376522&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002505568840&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826487&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826769&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002518512744&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391585327&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632393378&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391531300&base=11<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003576826781&base=11<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||12||106||40₃₉77<br>B0₂₇9B<br>B₆99B<br>AA0₅1<br>B00099B<br>AAA0001<br>BBBAA1<br>A00065<br>44AAA1<br>BBBB1||42<br>30<br>9<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>6<br>6<br>6<br>5||45<br>33<br>10<br>9<br>8<br>8<br>7<br>7<br>7<br>6||4×12⁴¹+91<br>11×12²⁹+119<br>12⁹−313<br>130×12⁶+1<br>32847239<br>32555521<br>2985817<br>2488397<br>1097113<br>248821||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002375054575&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002354113100&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=5159780039&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=388177921&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=32847239&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=32555521&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2985817&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=2488397&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1097113&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=248821&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002375054575&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002354113100&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=5159780039&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=388177921&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=32847239&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=32555521&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2985817&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=2488397&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1097113&base=12<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=248821&base=12<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||13||3197||A3₅₉₂₁₉₇A<br>95₁₉₇₄₂₀<br>80₃₂₀₁₇111<br>C5₂₃₇₅₅C<br>C₁₀₆₃₁92<br>B0₆₅₄₀BBA<br>390₆₂₆₆1<br>1770₂₇₀₃17<br>720₂₂₉₇2<br>930₁₅₅₁1||592199<br>197421<br>32021<br>23757<br>10633<br>6544<br>6269<br>2708<br>2300<br>1554||659677<br>219916<br>35670<br>26464<br>11845<br>7290<br>6983<br>3016<br>2562<br>1731||(41×13⁵⁹²¹⁹⁸+27)/4<br>(113×13¹⁹⁷⁴²⁰−5)/12<br>8×13³²⁰²⁰+183<br>(149×13²³⁷⁵⁶+79)/12<br>13¹⁰⁶³³−50<br>11×13⁶⁵⁴³+2012<br>48×13⁶²⁶⁷+1<br>267×13²⁷⁰⁵+20<br>93×13²²⁹⁸+2<br>120×13¹⁵⁵²+1||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005489162806&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003943359311&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000490878060&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590647776&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590493750&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002616382906&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961441&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430825&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396910&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961452&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005489162806&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003943359311&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000490878060&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590647776&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590493750&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002616382906&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961441&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430825&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632396910&base=13<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961452&base=13<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||14||650||4D₁₉₆₉₈<br>34D₇₀₈<br>8D₁₄₁85<br>8₈₆B<br>40₈₃49<br>8C₇₉3<br>18₇₉B<br>6B₇₇2B<br>4₆₃09<br>A₅₉3||19699<br>710<br>144<br>87<br>86<br>81<br>81<br>80<br>65<br>60||22578<br>814<br>165<br>100<br>99<br>93<br>92<br>92<br>74<br>69||5×14¹⁹⁶⁹⁸−1<br>47×14⁷⁰⁸−1<br>9×14¹⁴³−79<br>(8×14⁸⁷+31)/13<br>4×14⁸⁵+65<br>(116×14⁸⁰−129)/13<br>(21×14⁸⁰+31)/13<br>(89×14⁷⁹−1649)/13<br>(4×14⁶⁵−667)/13<br>(10×14⁶⁰−101)/13||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560233&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144903&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003575856650&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321014379&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000823937973&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002631073246&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002384401372&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002631077787&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126683&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321038522&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000884560233&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001540144903&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003575856650&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321014379&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000823937973&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002631073246&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002384401372&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002631077787&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840126683&base=14<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321038522&base=14<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||15||1284||7₁₅₅97<br>E₁₄₅397<br>96₁₀₄08<br>7₇₃CE<br>7₅₉CCE<br>50₃₃17<br>EB₃₁<br>6330₂₆1<br>7050₂₄B<br>B70₂₄1||157<br>148<br>107<br>75<br>62<br>36<br>32<br>30<br>28<br>27||185<br>175<br>126<br>88<br>73<br>42<br>38<br>35<br>33<br>32||(15¹⁵⁷+59)/2<br>15¹⁴⁸−2558<br>(66×15¹⁰⁶−619)/7<br>(15⁷⁵+163)/2<br>(15⁶²+2413)/2<br>5×15³⁵+22<br>(207×15³¹−11)/14<br>1398×15²⁷+1<br>1580×15²⁵+11<br>172×15²⁵+1||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002454891840&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002454900849&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000823937997&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407143&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407386&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632398579&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321033312&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002391199877&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588407806&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000851967288&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002454891840&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002454900849&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000823937997&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407143&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407386&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632398579&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321033312&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002391199877&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588407806&base=15<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000851967288&base=15<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||16||2347||3₁₁₆₁₃₇AF<br>4₇₂₇₈₅DD<br>DB₃₂₂₃₄<br>D0B₁₇₈₀₄<br>5BC₃₇₀₀D<br>90₃₅₄₂91<br>300F₁₉₆₀AF<br>20₁₇₁₃321<br>F8₁₅₁₇F<br>FAF₁₀₆₂45||116139<br>72787<br>32235<br>17806<br>3703<br>3545<br>1965<br>1717<br>1519<br>1066||139845<br>87644<br>38815<br>21441<br>4459<br>4269<br>2366<br>2067<br>1830<br>1284||(16¹¹⁶¹³⁹+619)/5<br>(4×16⁷²⁷⁸⁷+2291)/15<br>(206×16³²²³⁴−11)/15<br>(3131×16¹⁷⁸⁰⁴−11)/15<br>(459×16³⁷⁰¹+1)/5<br>9×16³⁵⁴⁴+145<br>769×16¹⁹⁶²−81<br>2×16¹⁷¹⁶+801<br>(233×16¹⁵¹⁸+97)/15<br>251×16¹⁰⁶⁴−187||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003851731988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003615909841&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002383583629&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003589278511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000993764322&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633424191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588368750&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588386735&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633744824&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387610&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003851731988&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003615909841&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002383583629&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003589278511&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000993764322&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000633424191&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588368750&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588386735&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000633744824&base=16<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003588387610&base=16<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||17||10415~10427||95F₁₉₈₈₅₅<br>B0₁₈₉₀₈₃DB<br>F70₁₈₆₇₆₇1<br>970₁₆₆₀₄₇1<br>510₁₂₄₀₇₄D<br>49₁₁₁₃₃₃<br>B₆₇₁₀₃2E<br>570₅₁₃₁₀1<br>E9B₄₄₇₃₂<br>D0GD₃₇₀₉₆||198857<br>189086<br>186770<br>166050<br>124077<br>111334<br>67105<br>51313<br>44734<br>37099||244684<br>232661<br>229811<br>204316<br>152670<br>136991<br>82570<br>63138<br>55043<br>45649||(2543×17¹⁹⁸⁸⁵⁵−15)/16<br>11×17¹⁸⁹⁰⁸⁵+232<br>262×17¹⁸⁶⁷⁶⁸+1<br>160×17¹⁶⁶⁰⁴⁸+1<br>86×17¹²⁴⁰⁷⁵+13<br>(73×17¹¹¹³³³−9)/16<br>(11×17⁶⁷¹⁰⁵−2411)/16<br>92×17⁵¹³¹¹+1<br>(3963×17⁴⁴⁷³²−11)/16<br>(60381×17³⁷⁰⁹⁶−13)/16||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610514108&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610515753&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961429&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961411&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008610516879&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003993647842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961389&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003883765450&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003848346668&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610514108&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610515753&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961429&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961411&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008610516879&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118219&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003993647842&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000765961389&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003883765450&base=17<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003848346668&base=17<nowiki/>||12||200000|| |- ||18||549||C0₆₂₆₈C5<br>H₇₆₆FH<br>80₂₉₈B<br>C0₁₁₆F5<br>HD₉₃<br>GG0₃₀1<br>CF₃₀5<br>B₁₉6B<br>CCF₁₄5<br>7₁₄G7||6271<br>768<br>300<br>119<br>94<br>33<br>32<br>21<br>17<br>16||7872<br>965<br>377<br>150<br>118<br>42<br>41<br>27<br>22<br>20||12×18⁶²⁷⁰+221<br>18⁷⁶⁸−37<br>8×18²⁹⁹+11<br>12×18¹¹⁸+275<br>(302×18⁹³−13)/17<br>304×18³¹+1<br>(219×18³¹−185)/17<br>(11×18²¹−1541)/17<br>(3891×18¹⁵−185)/17<br>(7×18¹⁶+2747)/17||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590442437&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430490&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355574745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632837015&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321052894&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819230161&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002631240657&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430474&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430470&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430465&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590442437&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430490&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355574745&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002632837015&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002321052894&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819230161&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002631240657&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430474&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430470&base=18<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590430465&base=18<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||19||31417~31434||1E70₁₂₂₈₉₆1<br>40₁₂₁₈₄₆HB5<br>35₁₂₀₅₆₂<br>FH0H₁₁₂₆₅₉<br>FG6₁₁₀₉₈₄<br>H₈₆₂₉₁6<br>D90₇₃₀₄₆9<br>4F0₄₉₈₄₇6<br>2₄₈₂₂₄7<br>2₄₅₈₈₆7A||122900<br>121850<br>120563<br>112662<br>110986<br>86292<br>73049<br>49850<br>48225<br>45888||157158<br>155816<br>154170<br>144067<br>110347<br>141924<br>93412<br>63746<br>61667<br>58679||634×19¹²²⁸⁹⁷+1<br>4×19¹²¹⁸⁴⁹+6351<br>(59×19¹²⁰⁵⁶²−5)/18<br>(103301×19¹¹²⁶⁵⁹−17)/18<br>(904×19¹¹⁰⁹⁸⁴−1)/3<br>(17×19⁸⁶²⁹²−215)/18<br>256×19⁷³⁰⁴⁷+9<br>91×19⁴⁹⁸⁴⁸+6<br>(19⁴⁸²²⁵+44)/9<br>(19⁴⁵⁸⁸⁸+926)/9||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001582289581&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755307222&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005513825027&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008755311453&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118212&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004163040839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003998413751&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118332&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949188041&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003949189035&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001582289581&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755307222&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005513825027&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008755311453&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118212&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004163040839&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003998413751&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118332&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949188041&base=19<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003949189035&base=19<nowiki/>||17||200000|| |- ||20||3314||G0₆₂₆₉D<br>CD₂₄₄₉<br>50₁₁₆₃AJ<br>J₆₅₅05J<br>JCJ₆₂₉<br>E₅₆₆C7<br>3A₅₂₇3<br>G₄₄₇99<br>EC0₄₂₉7<br>40₃₈₇404B||6271<br>2450<br>1166<br>658<br>631<br>568<br>529<br>449<br>432<br>392||8159<br>3188<br>1517<br>857<br>821<br>739<br>688<br>585<br>562<br>510||16×20⁶²⁷⁰+13<br>(241×20²⁴⁴⁹−13)/19<br>5×20¹¹⁶⁵+219<br>20⁶⁵⁸−7881<br>393×20⁶²⁹−1<br>(14×20⁵⁶⁸−907)/19<br>(67×20⁵²⁸−143)/19<br>(16×20⁴⁴⁹−2809)/19<br>292×20⁴³⁰+7<br>4×20³⁹¹+32091||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590539457&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325393915&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502412&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502490&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454258&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502516&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502531&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126753&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633348702&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502563&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590539457&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002325393915&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502412&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502490&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000001559454258&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502516&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502531&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840126753&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633348702&base=20<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003590502563&base=20<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||21||13386~13394||27₁₈₄₄₉₉9D<br>F9₁₇₈₇₇₁D<br>2FC₁₁₂₀₂₂A<br>7₁₀₈₄₅₀ID<br>40₄₇₃₃₃9G<br>B90₄₅₀₁₉E5<br>HD₃₇₄₁₄<br>BD₃₅₀₂₇B<br>990₃₃₂₃₉99H<br>5₃₀₆₀₆FEK||184502<br>178773<br>112025<br>108452<br>47336<br>45023<br>37415<br>35029<br>33244<br>30609||243952<br>236377<br>148121<br>143397<br>62588<br>59531<br>49471<br>46316<br>43956<br>40472||(47×21¹⁸⁴⁵⁰¹+953)/20<br>(309×21¹⁷⁸⁷⁷²+71)/20<br>(288×21¹¹²⁰²³−13)/5<br>(7×21¹⁰⁸⁴⁵²+4733)/20<br>4×21⁴⁷³³⁵+205<br>240×21⁴⁵⁰²¹+299<br>(353×21³⁷⁴¹⁴−13)/20<br>(233×21³⁵⁰²⁸−53)/20<br>198×21³³²⁴²+4175<br>(21³⁰⁶⁰⁹+18455)/4||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700600990&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700596669&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700593358&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008700586183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118331&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110311&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110479&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110718&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996110944&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003996111130&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700600990&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700596669&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700593358&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008700586183&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118331&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110311&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110479&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110718&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996110944&base=21<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003996111130&base=21<nowiki/>||8||200000|| |- ||22||8003||BK₂₂₀₀₁5<br>7₃₈₁₅2L<br>L₂₃₈₅KE7<br>7₉₅₉K7<br>J0₇₆₇IGGJ<br>K0₇₆₀EC1<br>I₆₂₆AF<br>E60₄₉₆L<br>L₄₈₃G3<br>L0₄₅₄B63||22003<br>3817<br>2388<br>961<br>772<br>764<br>628<br>499<br>485<br>458||29538<br>5124<br>3206<br>1290<br>1037<br>1026<br>843<br>670<br>652<br>615||(251×22²²⁰⁰²−335)/21<br>(22³⁸¹⁷−289)/3<br>22²³⁸⁸−653<br>(22⁹⁶¹+857)/3<br>19×22⁷⁷¹+199779<br>20×22⁷⁶³+7041<br>(6×22⁶²⁸−1259)/7<br>314×22⁴⁹⁷+21<br>22⁴⁸⁵−129<br>21×22⁴⁵⁷+5459||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003594696838&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591359839&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591360774&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591361817&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591362567&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724415&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632724334&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000632703239&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591364730&base=22<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003591365331&base=22<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||23||65178~65265||B0₉₃₀₄₆FB<br>L₈₆₄₄₄D<br>AJ₈₁₀₆₅4<br>20₇₃₅₆₀98<br>J₆₈₂₁₇G4<br>D70₆₆₇₇₀B<br>5F₆₂₃₄₀6<br>A7M7₆₁₅₃₂<br>B30₆₁₁₃₆5<br>EJ₅₂₁₆₉||93049<br>86445<br>81067<br>73563<br>68219<br>66773<br>62342<br>61535<br>61139<br>52170||126708<br>117715<br>110391<br>100172<br>92896<br>90927<br>84893<br>83794<br>83255<br>71042||11×23⁹³⁰⁴⁸+356<br>(21×23⁸⁶⁴⁴⁵−197)/22<br>(239×23⁸¹⁰⁶⁶−349)/22<br>2×23⁷³⁵⁶²+215<br>(19×23⁶⁸²¹⁹−1867)/22<br>306×23⁶⁶⁷⁷¹+11<br>(125×23⁶²³⁴¹−213)/22<br>(120413×23⁶¹⁵³²−7)/22<br>256×23⁶¹¹³⁷+5<br>(327×23⁵²¹⁶⁹−19)/22||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691540361&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691546739&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548070&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691548569&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549462&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691549803&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691551005&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691556967&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004691557548&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691540361&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691546739&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548070&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691548569&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549462&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691549803&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691551005&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691556967&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557254&base=23<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004691557548&base=23<nowiki/>||87||100000|| |- ||24||3409||N00N₈₁₂₉LN<br>88N₅₉₅₁<br>A0₂₉₅₁8ID<br>D₂₆₉₈LD<br>N₂₆₄₄LLN<br>BC0₃₃₁B<br>20₃₁₃7<br>C7₂₉₈<br>D0₂₅₉KKD<br>I0₂₄₁I5||8134<br>5953<br>2955<br>2700<br>2647<br>334<br>315<br>299<br>263<br>244||11227<br>8216<br>4079<br>3727<br>3654<br>461<br>434<br>413<br>363<br>337||13249×24⁸¹³¹−49<br>201×24⁵⁹⁵¹−1<br>10×24²⁹⁵⁴+5053<br>(13×24²⁷⁰⁰+4403)/23<br>24²⁶⁴⁷−1201<br>276×24³³²+11<br>2×24³¹⁴+7<br>(283×24²⁹⁸−7)/23<br>13×24²⁶²+12013<br>18×24²⁴³+437||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593391606&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593275880&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269654&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593269876&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270089&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633359842&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002355610241&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002326181235&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593270725&base=24<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002633360037&base=24<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||25||133639~133724||E₉₈₃₉₆FOO<br>1J710₉₆₂₇₂1<br>NB0₈₅₅₉₈5NH<br>D70₈₁₅₈₁JJ7<br>F0₈₀₀₅₄HL<br>J010₇₅₉₄₃E7<br>K₆₇₇₇₁5I<br>LO₆₆₃₇₇KC<br>KJD0₆₃₃₉₉1<br>70₆₀₈₉₂D711||98399<br>96277<br>85603<br>81586<br>80057<br>75948<br>67773<br>66380<br>63403<br>60897||137556<br>134589<br>119668<br>114053<br>111915<br>106171<br>94743<br>92796<br>88634<br>85130||(7×25⁹⁸³⁹⁹+10613)/12<br>27676×25⁹⁶²⁷³+1<br>586×25⁸⁵⁶⁰¹+3717<br>332×25⁸¹⁵⁸⁴+12357<br>15×25⁸⁰⁰⁵⁶+446<br>11876×25⁷⁵⁹⁴⁵+357<br>(5×25⁶⁷⁷⁷³−2267)/6<br>22×25⁶⁶³⁷⁹−113<br>12988×25⁶³⁴⁰⁰+1<br>7×25⁶⁰⁸⁹⁶+207526||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118215&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003983674902&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909706420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909733266&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909750102&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004909770736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986394&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118270&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986664&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004586986798&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118215&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003983674902&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909706420&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909733266&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909750102&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004909770736&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986394&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118270&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986664&base=25<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004586986798&base=25<nowiki/>||85||100000|| |- ||26||25256~25259||85M₁₉₇₀₆₀B<br>M0₆₁₁₈₆2BB<br>J0₄₄₃₀₃KCB<br>6K₂₃₃₀₀5<br>LD0₂₀₉₇₅7<br>7₂₀₂₇₉OL<br>5₁₉₃₉₁6F<br>9GDK₁₅₉₂₀P<br>M₈₇₇₂P<br>K0₄₃₆₄I5||197063<br>61190<br>44307<br>23302<br>20978<br>20281<br>19393<br>15924<br>8773<br>4367||278839<br>86583<br>62694<br>32972<br>29684<br>28697<br>27440<br>22532<br>12414<br>6180||(5347×26¹⁹⁷⁰⁶¹−297)/25<br>22×26⁶¹¹⁸⁹+1649<br>19×26⁴⁴³⁰⁶+13843<br>(34×26²³³⁰¹−79)/5<br>559×26²⁰⁹⁷⁶+7<br>(7×26²⁰²⁸¹+11393)/25<br>(26¹⁹³⁹³+179)/5<br>(32569×26¹⁵⁹²¹+21)/5<br>(22×26⁸⁷⁷³+53)/25<br>20×26⁴³⁶⁶+473||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008573990023&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968169875&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003968156595&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628745&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628658&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003892628605&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151202&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850155316&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000758011195&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002634136508&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008573990023&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968169875&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003968156595&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628745&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628658&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003892628605&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151202&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850155316&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000758011195&base=26<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002634136508&base=26<nowiki/>||3||200000|| |- ||27||102852~102896||CA0F₈₈₈₈₃A<br>GNN0₇₈₇₉₅N<br>O44L₆₆₀₁₆7<br>NJ0₆₄₃₆₉H<br>ME₄₉₆₄₀9G<br>PH0₄₇₈₉₀1<br>QF₄₇₁₆₅AF5<br>J0₄₀₇₉₁PD<br>510₃₉₁₆₄I07<br>NGN0₃₆₃₂₉N||88887<br>78799<br>66020<br>64372<br>49643<br>47893<br>47169<br>40794<br>39169<br>36333||127230<br>112790<br>94499<br>92140<br>71058<br>68553<br>67516<br>58391<br>56065<br>52006||(234483×27⁸⁸⁸⁸⁴−145)/26<br>12308×27⁷⁸⁷⁹⁶+23<br>(457829×27⁶⁶⁰¹⁷−385)/26<br>640×27⁶⁴³⁷⁰+17<br>(293×27⁴⁹⁶⁴²−1736)/13<br>692×27⁴⁷⁸⁹¹+1<br>(691×27⁴⁷¹⁶⁸−95045)/26<br>19×27⁴⁰⁷⁹³+688<br>136×27³⁹¹⁶⁷+13129<br>17222×27³⁶³³⁰+23||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118233&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004681348398&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374140861&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004374138999&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000819229859&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102754118&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102755880&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102758254&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004102875088&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004103372866&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118233&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004681348398&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374140861&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004374138999&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000819229859&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102754118&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102755880&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102758254&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004102875088&base=27<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004103372866&base=27<nowiki/>||44||100000|| |- ||28||25528~25529||O4O₉₄₅₃₅9<br>5OA₃₁₂₃₈F<br>N6₂₄₀₅₁LR<br>D0₅₂₆₇77D<br>QO₄₂₃₉69<br>5₃₇₄₆8P<br>G0₁₈₉₉AN<br>A₁₄₂₃6F<br>5I₁₃₇₀F<br>5₁₃₃₂P8P||94538<br>31241<br>24054<br>5271<br>4242<br>3748<br>1902<br>1425<br>1372<br>1335||136812<br>45210<br>34810<br>7628<br>6139<br>5424<br>2753<br>2062<br>1985<br>1932||(6092×28⁹⁴⁵³⁶−143)/9<br>(4438×28³¹²³⁹+125)/27<br>(209×28²⁴⁰⁵³+3967)/9<br>13×28⁵²⁷⁰+5697<br>(242×28⁴²⁴¹−4679)/9<br>(5×28³⁷⁴⁸+2803)/27<br>16×28¹⁹⁰¹+303<br>(10×28¹⁴²⁵−2899)/27<br>(17×28¹³⁷¹−11)/3<br>(5×28¹³³⁵+426163)/27||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118231&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003880455200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003879667576&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850151420&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839934&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161973&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840839947&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161972&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003850161965&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118231&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003880455200&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003879667576&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850151420&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839934&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161974&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161973&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840839947&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161972&base=28<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003850161965&base=28<nowiki/>||1||900000|| |- ||29||355242~355367||830₉₉₃₇₇4<br>GP5J₉₄₉₃₅<br>P05J₉₀₂₈₉<br>BBD0₈₈₈₈₈PB<br>8B₈₅₃₃₃G<br>L0₈₁₅₇₁5955<br>E0₇₇₃₇₂L7B<br>LPC₇₅₁₅₁9<br>JR0₇₄₆₂₂7<br>B₇₄₅₀₁0RP||99380<br>94938<br>90292<br>88893<br>85335<br>81576<br>77376<br>75154<br>74625<br>74504||145333<br>138837<br>132043<br>129997<br>124794<br>119297<br>113155<br>109905<br>109132<br>108955||235×29⁹⁹³⁷⁸+4<br>(397227×29⁹⁴⁹³⁵−19)/28<br>(588859×29⁹⁰²⁸⁹−19)/28<br>9583×29⁸⁸⁸⁹⁰+736<br>(235×29⁸⁵³³⁴+129)/14<br>21×29⁸¹⁵⁷⁵+129664<br>14×29⁷⁷³⁷⁵+17875<br>(4441×29⁷⁵¹⁵²−24)/7<br>578×29⁷⁴⁶²³+7<br>(11×29⁷⁴⁵⁰⁴−245655)/28||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253882372&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253893542&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253899083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253909183&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253921388&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253925955&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253931446&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000808118236&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253934219&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008253936120&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253882372&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253893542&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253899083&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253909183&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253921388&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253925955&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253931446&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000808118236&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253934219&base=29<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008253936120&base=29<nowiki/>||125||100000|| |- ||30||2619||OT₃₄₂₀₅<br>I0₂₄₆₀₈D<br>5₄₈₈₂J<br>C0₁₀₂₂1<br>M0₅₄₇SS7<br>M₂₄₁QB<br>AN₂₀₆<br>50₁₆₄B<br>J₁₅₃QJ<br>J₉₄QQJ||34206<br>24610<br>4883<br>1024<br>551<br>243<br>207<br>166<br>155<br>97||50527<br>36352<br>7213<br>1513<br>814<br>359<br>306<br>245<br>229<br>144||25×30³⁴²⁰⁵−1<br>18×30²⁴⁶⁰⁹+13<br>(5×30⁴⁸⁸³+401)/29<br>12×30¹⁰²³+1<br>22×30⁵⁵⁰+26047<br>(22×30²⁴³+3139)/29<br>(313×30²⁰⁶−23)/29<br>5×30¹⁶⁵+11<br>(19×30¹⁵⁵+6071)/29<br>(19×30⁹⁷+188771)/29||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002356282476&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409109&open=ecm<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593409165&open=ecm<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000800812865&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593967511&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327649423&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000785448736&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593407988&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593408295&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002327651073&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002356282476&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409109&base=30<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003593409165&base=30<nowiki/>||0||–|| |- ||31||569323~569400||2IIF₉₁₈₀₅<br>B0₈₈₃₀₉APO9<br>J0T₇₇₅₁₆<br>J090₇₇₁₂₈NNN<br>D₆₉₈₆₁QO<br>9MH0₆₈₆₃₇D<br>J₆₇₁₆₂D<br>N0₆₆₉₇₁32P<br>DDDQ0₆₄₀₈₈TD<br>U₆₃₈₆₁CM3||91808<br>88314<br>77518<br>77134<br>69863<br>68641<br>67163<br>66975<br>64094<br>63864||136918<br>131708<br>115608<br>115035<br>104191<br>102369<br>100165<br>99884<br>95587<br>95245||(4997×31⁹¹⁸⁰⁵−1)/2<br>11×31⁸⁸³¹³+322688<br>(17699×31⁷⁷⁵¹⁶−29)/30<br>18268×31⁷⁷¹³¹+22839<br>(13×31⁶⁹⁸⁶³+12407)/30<br>9348×31⁶⁸⁶³⁸+13<br>(19×31⁶⁷¹⁶³−199)/30<br>23×31⁶⁶⁹⁷⁴+2970<br>400205×31⁶⁴⁰⁹⁰+912<br>31⁶³⁸⁶⁴−17574||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050395732&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050397309&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050398940&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000007050400178&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965878559&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965875678&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965873668&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965870538&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965868103&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000006965865343&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050395732&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050397309&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050398940&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000007050400178&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965878559&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965875678&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965873668&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965870538&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965868103&base=31<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000006965865343&base=31<nowiki/>||77||100000|| |- ||32||168882~169002||V₉₉₅₈₃63<br>6₈₉₀₇₄AF<br>8₇₇₇₀₀H<br>Q₇₇₄₀₁EQQQ3<br>8₇₇₂₄₉3<br>JM₇₆₀₂₈L<br>E₇₂₉₁₉IL<br>B0₆₇₆₈₀CB<br>GK₆₆₀₇₆F<br>KN₆₅₀₂₂||99585<br>89076<br>77701<br>77406<br>77250<br>76030<br>72921<br>67683<br>66078<br>65023||149891<br>134073<br>116952<br>116508<br>116273<br>114437<br>109757<br>101873<br>99458<br>97870||32⁹⁹⁵⁸⁵−829<br>(6×32⁸⁹⁰⁷⁶+4241)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷⁷⁰¹+271)/31<br>(26×32⁷⁷⁴⁰⁶−390071011)/31<br>(8×32⁷⁷²⁵⁰−163)/31<br>(611×32⁷⁶⁰²⁹−53)/31<br>(14×32⁷²⁹²¹+4171)/31<br>11×32⁶⁷⁶⁸²+395<br>(516×32⁶⁶⁰⁷⁷−175)/31<br>(643×32⁶⁵⁰²²−23)/31||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514892191&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514897129&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514901700&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514915338&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514918574&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005514922523&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654373&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654467&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654632&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004591654952&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514892191&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514897129&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514901700&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514915338&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514918574&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005514922523&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654373&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654467&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654632&base=32<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004591654952&base=32<nowiki/>||120||100000|| |- ||33||280012~280093||DP₉₅₀₉₃M5<br>HJ0₉₄₂₉₅J<br>90₉₃₅₉₇Q<br>9F0₉₃₁₅₇N<br>7₈₉₄₄₉333H<br>K3₈₀₇₅₁6K<br>D₈₀₁₀₇9UD<br>VFU₇₂₂₀₄FK<br>J₆₈₇₁₅2BJ<br>DF0₆₈₃₆₇J||95096<br>94298<br>93599<br>93160<br>89453<br>80754<br>80110<br>72208<br>68718<br>68370||144405<br>143193<br>142131<br>141465<br>135835<br>122626<br>121648<br>109649<br>104350<br>103821||(441×33⁹⁵⁰⁹⁵−3833)/32<br>580×33⁹⁴²⁹⁶+19<br>9×33⁹³⁵⁹⁸+26<br>312×33⁹³¹⁵⁸+23<br>(7×33⁸⁹⁴⁵³−4743239)/32<br>(643×33⁸⁰⁷⁵³+3709)/32<br>(13×33⁸⁰¹¹⁰−121453)/32<br>(16623×33⁷²²⁰⁶−8095)/16<br>(19×33⁶⁸⁷¹⁸−600883)/32<br>444×33⁶⁸³⁶⁸+19||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652348775&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652362811&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652375073&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652389776&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652430746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652446200&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000005652461592&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614764298&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614770536&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004614784274&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652348775&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652362811&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652375073&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652389776&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652430746&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652446200&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000005652461592&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614764298&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614770536&base=33<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004614784274&base=33<nowiki/>||81||100000|| |- ||34||184785~184832||GFGC₉₉₉₉₆5<br>90₉₇₉₅₀FJ<br>NM0₈₅₂₁₈KX<br>F₈₃₁₈₉H2HP<br>P₇₉₄₄₁444P<br>6₇₇₀₂₇8X<br>XQIQ₇₂₂₄₁D<br>T₆₆₅₃₀IF<br>4₆₆₁₅₂B<br>2EEC₆₆₀₃₉7||100000<br>97953<br>85222<br>83193<br>79445<br>77029<br>72245<br>66532<br>66153<br>66043||153148<br>150013<br>130516<br>127408<br>121669<br>117968<br>110642<br>101893<br>101312<br>101143||(209246×34⁹⁹⁹⁹⁷−81)/11<br>9×34⁹⁷⁹⁵²+529<br>804×34⁸⁵²²⁰+713<br>(5×34⁸³¹⁹³+700233)/11<br>(25×34⁷⁹⁴⁴⁵−28062367)/33<br>(2×34⁷⁷⁰²⁹+1043)/11<br>(1288676×34⁷²²⁴²−455)/33<br>(29×34⁶⁶⁵³²−12833)/33<br>(4×34⁶⁶¹⁵³+227)/33<br>(30826×34⁶⁶⁰⁴⁰−59)/11||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702891268&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702894713&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702900996&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702910376&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702913746&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004702918600&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399656529&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399657696&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399658651&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004399659716&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702891268&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702894713&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702900996&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702910376&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702913746&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004702918600&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399656529&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399657696&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399658651&base=34<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004399659716&base=34<nowiki/>||47||100000|| |- ||35||720002~720062||N0N₉₉₉₇₁9<br>V0₈₃₆₆₉E73<br>N₈₁₅₆₃K7N<br>BJ0₈₁₂₇₉N<br>J0₈₀₀₆₂FUH<br>43V₇₉₇₅₄<br>9₇₆₆₀₀K3<br>LB₇₁₃₆₆PB<br>Q₆₄₁₅₀H<br>50₆₃₃₉₇5R||99974<br>83673<br>81566<br>81282<br>80066<br>79756<br>76602<br>71369<br>64151<br>63400||154367<br>129197<br>125944<br>125505<br>123628<br>123148<br>118279<br>110199<br>99054<br>97894||(27393×35⁹⁹⁹⁷²−499)/34<br>31×35⁸³⁶⁷²+17398<br>(23×35⁸¹⁵⁶⁶−144013)/34<br>404×35⁸¹²⁸⁰+23<br>19×35⁸⁰⁰⁶⁵+19442<br>(4893×35⁷⁹⁷⁵⁴−31)/34<br>(9×35⁷⁶⁶⁰²+12877)/34<br>(725×35⁷¹³⁶⁸+16649)/34<br>(13×35⁶⁴¹⁵¹−166)/17<br>5×35⁶³³⁹⁹+202||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248342445&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248353306&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248375642&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248397018&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248412468&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248418540&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008248423670&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192119974&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192126630&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000008192129294&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248342445&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248353306&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248375642&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248397018&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248412468&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248418540&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008248423670&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192119974&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192126630&base=35<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000008192129294&base=35<nowiki/>||60||100000|| |- ||36||35286~35290||P₈₁₉₉₃SZ<br>S0₇₅₀₀₇8H<br>7K₂₆₅₆₇Z<br>J₁₀₁₁₇LJ<br>VL0₇₂₅₈J<br>EO0₆₁₇₇V<br>FZ₅₇₇₇3P<br>T09₄₆₁₈1<br>RY₄₅₆₂H<br>OZ₃₉₃₂AZ||81995<br>75010<br>26569<br>10119<br>7261<br>6180<br>5780<br>4621<br>4564<br>3935||127609<br>116739<br>41349<br>15748<br>11301<br>9618<br>8996<br>7192<br>7103<br>6124||(5×36⁸¹⁹⁹⁵+821)/7<br>28×36⁷⁵⁰⁰⁹+305<br>(53×36²⁶⁵⁶⁸+101)/7<br>(19×36¹⁰¹¹⁹+2501)/35<br>1137×36⁷²⁵⁹+19<br>528×36⁶¹⁷⁸+31<br>16×36⁵⁷⁷⁹−1163<br>(36549×36⁴⁶¹⁹−289)/35<br>(979×36⁴⁵⁶³−629)/35<br>25×36³⁹³⁴−901||http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002394962083&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000004020085177&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003896952461&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362491&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362489&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362488&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362487&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362486&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003807362485&open=prime<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840634476&open=prime<nowiki/>||http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000002394962083&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000004020085177&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003896952461&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362491&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362489&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362488&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362487&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362486&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000003807362485&base=36<br>http://factordb.com/index.php?showid=1100000000840634476&base=36<nowiki/>||4||200000|| |} == The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) == '''Bold''' for the Athena primes, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''. Assume ''p'' is a prime > 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}. Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9. Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''. Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8. If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''. If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite. Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}. If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}. If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite. If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element. Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8. If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}. If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction). If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801. Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3. In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8. Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2. In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}. If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40_''n''1 = 280_''n''7. Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5. In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's. If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty. If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''. If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''. Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7. In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8. In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9. In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9. If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's. If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4. Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3. In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''. Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4. In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6_''n''7 = 46_''n''9. Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6. In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6. If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}. If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes. Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9. In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669. [[Category:Number theory]] m72uzvwsqaqi16u8s1bvcp4tueqyvf1 0 330073 2823491 2821591 2026-08-20T04:15:48Z ~2026-45689-78 3108580 +scenario and focus questions 2823491 wikitext text/x-wiki == Emotion regulation through exercise == === Is exercise an effective strategy to regulate emotions? === <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Sarah stayed up late last night studying as she has three assignments due in the same week. When her alarm goes off at 6am for work she feels exhausted so crawls to the shower to wake herself up. Sarahs house mate bangs on the door yelling to hurry up as they need to use the bathroom. Sarah is already sick of this day but gets dressed and rushes off to her part-time work at a before school care center. Her boss grumbles at her for being 10 minutes late and the children are complaining and fighting about the breakfast they served today. Sarah pushes though her shift, and when it's over, she gets back to her car and sits in it for a moment, She feels tired, grumpy and so frustrated with so many people right now she feels like she might explode. Sarah knows she should go for a run because she hasn't exercised all week, but she is just too tired. Maybe she will get Macca's on the way home and go to her couch to scroll on her phone while she is peacefully at home by herself. What should Sarah do to help regulate her rising emotions: Go for a run or home to scroll? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is emotion regulation? * How can exercise help regulate emotions? * What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == What is Emotion Regulation? == Emotion regulation is........ == How can exercise help to regulate emotions? == Exercise......... == What exercise is best to help regulate emotions? == Any exercise is beneficial to individuals but to regulate your emotions the most ideal exercise looks like this: ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Emotion regulation through exercise|Emotion regulation through exercise]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] <noinclude> <hr> __TOC__ [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] 7rbar19teudbxjpk1fd8q8uguhy0kft 0 330078 2823428 2822944 2026-08-20T03:21:46Z Ckopplemann 3108346 {{subst:ME/BCS}} 2823428 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion - Pleasure anticipation and dopamine Response|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] 0t8l2jnd0s1uimv98br2ffha6d01j9s 2823438 2823428 2026-08-20T03:27:24Z Ckopplemann 3108346 title and subtitle change 2823438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion - Pleasure anticipation and dopamine Response|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] t43tj7cgbugd4ahfl5thpmv4fyd608r 2823486 2823438 2026-08-20T04:00:25Z Ckopplemann 3108346 Headings and Subheadings added 2823486 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === == Dopamine and reward anticipation == === The dopamine reward system === === Reward prediction and learning === == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion - Pleasure anticipation and dopamine Response|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] tit2a70w8hc43sqg6p1t8epn575asph 2823492 2823486 2026-08-20T04:17:08Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ Remove broken link 2823492 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === == Dopamine and reward anticipation == === The dopamine reward system === === Reward prediction and learning === == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==See also== * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] hxxz96boyqd2fv73e4nff036k02kq7t 2823493 2823492 2026-08-20T04:17:42Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ 2823493 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine :<br> How does the brains reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure? }} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === === Pleasure and motivated behaviour === == Dopamine and reward anticipation == === The dopamine reward system === === Reward prediction and learning === == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == === Wanting versus liking === === Incentive salience theory === == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == === Sexual desire and pleasure === === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === === Substance use and addiction === ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] phaa5xonkl6p5fcu97adweg7r8z6lki 0 330079 2823537 2823014 2026-08-20T05:48:03Z Amyuniversity 3106627 2823537 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Body neutrality and emotional well-being:<br>How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Understanding Body Neutrality == === Body Image and Body Dissatisfaction === * What is body image? * What is body dissatisfaction? * What are the links to body image/dissatisfaction and emotion === Body Positivity === * What is body positivity? * Benefits of body positivity * Limitations of body positivity === Body Neutrality === * Finally explain body neutrality * How is it different to body positivity/dissaisfaction * Explain how acceptance doesn't require positive emotions ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 5u47i9jftr7q74z9jhvenpx3yj5jbgb 2823542 2823537 2026-08-20T05:53:21Z Amyuniversity 3106627 drafting 2823542 wikitext text/x-wiki {{METP}} {{title|Body neutrality and emotional well-being:<br>How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations == Understanding Body Neutrality == === Body Image and Body Dissatisfaction === * What is body image? * What is body dissatisfaction? * What are the links to body image/dissatisfaction and emotion === Body Positivity === * What is body positivity? * Benefits of body positivity * Limitations of body positivity === Body Neutrality === * Finally explain body neutrality * How is it different to body positivity/dissatisfaction * Explain how acceptance doesn't require positive emotions == Emotional Elements of Body Neutrality == === Negative Emotions === * Shame * Anxiety === Self-Esteem and Self-Worth === === Psychological Effects === * Psychological disorders? * Distorted self-image? ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 5b6dh30w5c1cuvwpaysnbvhw42ltrhw 0 330218 2823159 2823028 2026-08-19T15:20:29Z Alandmanson 1669821 2823159 wikitext text/x-wiki =Apoidea= There are many familiar species in this superfamily; it includes seven families of bees and about 13 families of wasps. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Amegilla atrocincta.jpg|''Amegilla atrocincta'', Apidae Xylocopa olivacea Vynbos 2.jpg|''Xylocopa olivacea'', Apidae Megachile maxillosa inaturalist 209496203.jpg|''Megachile maxillosa'', Megachilidae Hylaeus heraldicus inaturalist 68861048.jpg|''Hylaeus heraldicus'', Colletidae Black Mud-dauber Wasp (Sceliphron spirifex) on Buffalo-Thorn (Ziziphus mucronata) flowers ... (52739846889).jpg|''Sceliphron spirifex'', Sphecidae Ammophila ferrugineipes04.jpg|''Ammophila'' cf. ''ferrugineipes'', Sphecidae Philanthus triangulum diadema 187037342.jpg|''Philanthus triangulum'', Philanthidae </gallery> The cladogram below shows the probable relationships between the apoid wasp families (Sphecidae ''sensu lato'') and the bees (Anthophila).<ref name=Krichilsky2025>Krichilsky, E., Sann, M., & Ohl, M. (2025). Systematics of Sphecidae sensu lato: Past, Present, and Future—Quantifying Diversity, Taxonomy, and Phylogeny. Insect Systematics and Diversity, 9(6), ixaf037.</ref><ref name=waspweb>van Noort, S. 2026. WaspWeb: Hymenoptera of the World. https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/index.htm (accessed on 16 June 2026).</ref> {{clade| style=font-size:100%;line-height:100% |label1=[[Apoidea]] |1={{clade |1=[[African Arthropods/Ampulicidae|Ampulicidae]] (Two Afrotropical genera in one subfamily) |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=Mellinidae (No Afrotropical genera) |2=[[Heterogynaidae]] (One Afrotropical genus) }} |2={{clade |1=[[African Arthropods/Sphecidae|Sphecidae]] (Nine Afrotropical genera in four subfamilies) |2=[[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]] (46 Afrotropical genera in one subfamily) }} }} |2={{clade |1=[[African Arthropods/Astatidae|Astatidae]] (Three Afrotropical genera) |2={{clade |1=[[African Arthropods/Bembecidae|Bembicidae]] (18 Afrotropical genera in three subfamilies) |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=[[African Arthropods/Pemphredonidae|Pemphredonidae]] (Seven Afrotropical genera in two subfamilies) |2={{clade |1=[[African Arthropods/Philanthidae|Philanthidae]] (Seven Afrotropical genera in four subfamilies) |2={{clade |1=[[Eremiaspheciidae]] (One Afrotropical species) |2=Entomosericidae (No Afrotropical genera) }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=[[Psenidae]] (Four Afrotropical genera) |2={{clade |1=[[Ammoplanidae]] (Two Afrotropical genera) |2=[[Anthophila]] (Bees - 2755 Afrotropical species in 99 genera; six families)<ref name=Eardley2010>Eardley, C., & Urban, R. (2010). Catalogue of Afrotropical bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes). Zootaxa, 2455(1), 1-548.</ref> }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} :'''Basal Apoidea''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ampulicidae 37894270 suncana.jpg|[[w:Ampulicidae|Ampulicidae]] - cockroach wasps ([[w:Ammophila (wasp)|''Ampulex'' cf. ''apicalis'']]) Dolichurus cf basuto iN 99066897 Sep 29, 2021.jpg|[[w:Ampulicidae|Ampulicidae]] - cockroach wasps ([[w:Dolichurus|''Dolichurus'' cf. ''basuto'']]) </gallery> :'''Sphecid clade''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tachysphex iN 250449986 2024 10 09 7305.jpg|[[African Arthropods/Crabroninae|Crabronidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Tachysphex |''Tachysphex'' cf ''asinus'']]) Ammophila ferrugineipes Thread-waisted wasp IMG 2008s.jpg|[[w:Sphecidae|Sphecidae]] - mud daubers, digger & sand wasps (''[[w:Ammophila|Ammophila ferrugineipes]]'') Sceliphron spirifex 2015 10 10 01.jpg|[[w:Sphecidae|Sphecidae]] - mud daubers, digger & sand wasps (''[[w:Sceliphron spirifex|Sceliphron spirifex]]'') </gallery> :'''Astatidae''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Astata iN 105162782 Nicola van Berkel.jpg|[[w:Astatidae|Astatidae]] - astatid wasps ([[w:Astata |''Astata'' sp.]]) Astata melanaria.jpg|[[w:Astatidae|Astatidae]] - astatid wasps ([[w:Astata melanaria |''Astata melanaria'']]) </gallery> :'''Bembicidae''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|[[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]] - sand wasps ([[w:Gorytes |''Gorytes'' cf ''natalensis'']]) </gallery> :'''Philanthid clade''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Carinostigmus iN 171762921 01.jpg|[[w:Pemphredonidae|Pemphredonidae]] - aphid wasps (''[[w:Carinostigmus|Carinostigmus]]'' sp.) Polemistus braunsii iNaturalist 228280708.jpg|[[w:Pemphredonidae|Pemphredonidae]] - aphid wasps (''[[w:Polemistus braunsii|Polemistus braunsii]]'') Cerceris 2019 12 02 2310.jpg|[[w:Philanthidae|Philanthidae]] - bee wolves and allies (''[[w:Cerceris|Cerceris]]'' sp.) Philanthus triangulum diadema 187037342.jpg|[[w:Philanthidae|Philanthidae]] - bee wolves and allies (''[[w:Philanthus triangulum|Philanthus triangulum diadema]]'') </gallery> :'''Families closely related to bees''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Psenini iN 1022563 i c riddell.jpg|[[w:Psenidae|Psenidae]] (Unidentified psenid wasp) Lindenius columbianus 02.jpg|[[w:Ammoplanidae|Ammoplanidae]] (''Ammoplanus salicis'', an ammoplanid wasp from New Mexico) </gallery> :'''Epifamily Anthophila (Bees)''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> A mining bee, Genus Andrena.jpg|'''[[w:Andrenidae|Andrenidae]]''' - Mining bees (''Andrena'' sp.) Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|'''[[w:Apidae|Apidae]]''' - honey, cuckoo, digger & carpenter bees (''Xylocopa caffra'') Scrapter niger 2 flowers towards Avontuur.jpg|'''[[w:Colletidae|Colletidae]]''' - membrane, plasterer & masked bees (''Scrapter niger'') Halictid Bees (Spatunomia rubra) males roosting on a branch (16602329167).jpg|'''[[w:Halictidae|Halictidae]]''' - sweat bees, flower bees (''Spatunomia rubra'') Black bee in flower (6967270401).jpg|'''[[w:Megachilidae|Megachilidae]]''' - leaf-cutting bees, mason bees Rediviva, f, south africa, side 2014-11-04-13.11.43 ZS PMax (15794500671).jpg|'''[[w:Melittidae|Melittidae]]''' - melittid bees (''Rediviva'' sp.) </gallery> :'''Apoid family with unknown affinities''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Heterogyna04.jpg|[[w:Heterogynaidae|Heterogynaidae]] (''Heterogyna'' sp.) </gallery> *[[Ammoplanidae]] *[[Ampulicidae]] *[[Astatidae]] *[[Bembicinae|Bembicidae]] *[[Crabronidae]] *[[Entomosericidae]] *[[Eremiaspheciidae]] *[[Heterogynaidae]] *[[Mellinidae]] *[[Pemphredonidae]] *[[Philanthidae]] *[[Psenidae]] *[[Sphecidae]] Clade [[Anthophila (bee)|Anthophila]] *[[Andrenidae]] *[[Apidae]] *[[Colletidae]] *[[Halictidae]] *[[Megachilidae]] *[[Melittidae]] *[[Stenotritidae]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} roafbpwkdyelxw0p76unq16hdxrk95u 0 330494 2823620 2822757 2026-08-20T10:02:30Z NDM2024 2984088 2823620 wikitext text/x-wiki https://w.wiki/Skm7 The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. <big>Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:</big> <ref>https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources</ref>[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|<big>The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.</big>]] <ref>https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources</ref> https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068[ [File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|300px|right|<big> Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.</big>]] ====[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]] ==== 1.2 Nursing Students Health Database <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk </ref></big> <big>1.3. Medical student's Health Database <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n </ref></big> <big>1.4. School childrens` Health database <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 </ref></big> <big>1.5 Excel recoding <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG</ref><big> <br /> 2. '''Intervention studies''' English <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx </ref> Danish <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv </ref> Spanish <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv </ref> - General research protocol draft <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s </ref> - Health Promoting Schools <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh </ref> - John Snow Institute bylaws <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r </ref> 3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 <ref>https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute </ref><ref name=":0"> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf </ref> 4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:''' <small>Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark</small> 5. '''Events''' ====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ==== ==References== <references /> [[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology <ref>https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links</ref> <references /> hrk3thwo3xw3avyczya0avwbpqy7gou 2823621 2823620 2026-08-20T10:03:50Z NDM2024 2984088 2823621 wikitext text/x-wiki https://w.wiki/Skm7 The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. <big>Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:</big> <ref>https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources</ref>[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|<big>The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.</big>]] <ref>https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources</ref> https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068[ [File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|<big> Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.</big>]] ====[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]] ==== <big>1.2 Nursing Students Health Database <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk </ref></big> <big>1.3. Medical student's Health Database <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n </ref></big> <big>1.4. School childrens` Health database <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 </ref></big> <big>1.5 Excel recoding <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG</ref><big> <br /> 2. '''Intervention studies''' English <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx </ref> Danish <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv </ref> Spanish <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv </ref> - General research protocol draft <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s </ref> - Health Promoting Schools <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh </ref> - John Snow Institute bylaws <ref> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&dl=0&rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r </ref> 3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 <ref>https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute </ref><ref name=":0"> https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf </ref> 4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:''' <small>Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark</small> 5. '''Events''' ====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ==== ==References== <references /> [[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology <ref>https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links</ref> <references /> betfwwldg8tylmxbiu1gr2hv7f7m49i 2 330795 2823364 2822696 2026-08-20T02:21:16Z U3285438 3103750 Added some hobbies, a Figure, and bolded some key points. 2823364 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' (will finish caption later). ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. This unit involves producing a book chapter. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question '''"what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?"''' My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] 3qsba5wn4qy68jgzu17h9uj3xpbim3p 2823374 2823364 2026-08-20T02:29:39Z U3285438 3103750 Added caption to Figure 1. 2823374 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question '''"what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?"''' My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] gmnydc38j9igorkrrcz0skfe46y4jcc 2823382 2823374 2026-08-20T02:52:14Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ Added a social contribution. 2823382 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question '''"what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?"''' My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] frkocs51u696asdwvnb73udwgzrv4i8 2823390 2823382 2026-08-20T03:09:48Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ Added social contribution. 2823390 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question '''"what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?"''' My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] 62okt9v9ek3jpjn0poilezu2ytv8zg3 2823543 2823390 2026-08-20T05:58:45Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ added a social contribution 2823543 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question '''"what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?"''' My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Suggested a relevant book chapter to consider adding to the 'See also' section.] dc29bbk40jz00qijs26jeazuf68lb9s 2823554 2823543 2026-08-20T06:08:40Z U3285438 3103750 /* Social contributions */ reworded 5th social contribution. 2823554 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. [[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' When I was a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly. ]] I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. Some of my hobbies include: * Reading * [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1) == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question '''"what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?"''' My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others. == Social contributions == #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&diff=2823381&oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&diff=2823387&oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&diff=2823539&oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] doicdch6qxptwdrt7ykgu7dqv537ebz 0 331004 2823220 2823022 2026-08-19T22:06:52Z Reillyu3280706 3106308 added to key points 2823220 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:<br>What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Figure 1'''. Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]] [[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. [[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics? What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity? What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking? How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour? How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== == [[#Overview|Overview]] == == Understanding impulsivity == == Understanding sensation seeking == == Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking == == Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour == == Alcohol use and related consequences == == [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] == * See also * References * External links ==Key points== '''Overview:''' *Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021). '''Understanding impulsivity''': *Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023). *Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021). '''Understanding sensation seeking''': *Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021). '''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''': *Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007). '''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''': *Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021). *Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021). *Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024). '''Alcohol use and related consequences''': *Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). *Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007). *Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023). '''Conclusion''': *Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007). *Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023). ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= {{Hanging indent|1= Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., & Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572 Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., & Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058 Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., & Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411 Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015 Ravert, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., & McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511 Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., & Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922 Sârbescu, P., & Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004 Siraj, R., Najam, B., & Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024 Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., & Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730 }} }} {{tip|{{Hanging indent|1= Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., & Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572 Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., & Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058 Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., & Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411 Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015 Ravert, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., & McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511 Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., & Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922 Sârbescu, P., & Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004 Siraj, R., Najam, B., & Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024 Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., & Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730 }}}} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]] 6djz0nss82bos5lhgtowd4c0liukqsu 2823223 2823220 2026-08-19T22:19:28Z Reillyu3280706 3106308 added conclusion 2823223 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:<br>What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Figure 1'''. Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]] [[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. [[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics? What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity? What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking? How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour? How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== == [[#Overview|Overview]] == == Understanding impulsivity == == Understanding sensation seeking == == Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking == == Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour == == Alcohol use and related consequences == == [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] == * See also * References * External links ==Key points== '''Overview:''' *Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021). '''Understanding impulsivity''': *Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023). *Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021). '''Understanding sensation seeking''': *Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021). '''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''': *Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007). '''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''': *Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021). *Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021). *Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024). '''Alcohol use and related consequences''': *Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). *Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007). *Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023). '''Conclusion''': *Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024). *Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007). ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= {{Hanging indent|1= Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., & Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572 Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., & Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058 Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., & Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411 Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015 Ravert, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., & McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511 Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., & Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922 Sârbescu, P., & Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004 Siraj, R., Najam, B., & Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024 Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., & Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730 }} }} {{tip|{{Hanging indent|1= Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., & Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572 Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., & Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058 Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., & Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411 Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015 Ravert, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., & McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511 Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., & Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922 Sârbescu, P., & Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004 Siraj, R., Najam, B., & Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024 Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., & Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730 }}}} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]] hampk0kfi4xxxw7cdgkwq3uiaza2tp2 2823600 2823223 2026-08-20T08:31:29Z Sienna33309 3106991 Changed figure 1 to APA format 2823600 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:<br>What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]] [[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. [[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' [[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics? What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity? What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking? How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour? How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== == [[#Overview|Overview]] == == Understanding impulsivity == == Understanding sensation seeking == == Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking == == Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour == == Alcohol use and related consequences == == [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] == * See also * References * External links ==Key points== '''Overview:''' *Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021). '''Understanding impulsivity''': *Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023). *Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021). '''Understanding sensation seeking''': *Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021). '''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''': *Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023). *Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007). '''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''': *Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021). *Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021). *Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024). '''Alcohol use and related consequences''': *Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). *Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007). *Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023). '''Conclusion''': *Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert & Donnellan, 2021). *Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024). *Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007). ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= {{Hanging indent|1= Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., & Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572 Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., & Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058 Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., & Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411 Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015 Ravert, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., & McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511 Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., & Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922 Sârbescu, P., & Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004 Siraj, R., Najam, B., & Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024 Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., & Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730 }} }} {{tip|{{Hanging indent|1= Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., & Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572 Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., & Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058 Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., & Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411 Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., & Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015 Ravert, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., & McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511 Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., & Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922 Sârbescu, P., & Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004 Siraj, R., Najam, B., & Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024 Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., & Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730 }}}} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]] 6120z2oc4w3chhymx1gt72ytesp6d51 828 331015 2823226 2822600 2026-08-19T23:38:58Z Helpme2222 3106525 2823226 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.ifexist() return tonumber(frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox", args = {frame.args[1]} }) end function p.performance() for i = 1,1000000000 do local tense = "jelen" end return end function p.performance1() local var for i = 1,1000000000 do if var[1] then end end return end function p.performance2() local var for i = 1,1000000000 do if type(var) == "table" then end end return end function p.expand() return frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox" } end function p.title3() return mw.title.getCurrentTitle().fullText end function p.title2() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA", ["Module:Sandbox/22"] = "Module:Sandbox/22" } } local concepts = { grammatical_cases, } local PAGENAME = tostring(mw.title.getCurrentTitle()) local detected = false local out = {} local debugger = {} for i, group in ipairs(concepts) do if group.inessive[PAGENAME] then table.insert(debugger,"Okay, managed TRUE on "..i..":"..group.ablative) detected = detected or true local formattedGroup = {} for memberKey, memberRendervalue in pairs(group.inessive) do table.insert(formattedGroup, "<li>" .. memberRendervalue .. "</li>") end table.insert(out, "<h3>" .. group.ablative .. "</h3><ul>" .. table.concat( formattedGroup ) .. "</ul>" ) table.insert(out, "this sucks ass") return "this sucks ass" else table.insert(debugger,"Managed FALSE on "..i..":"..group.ablative..". Comparator: "..PAGENAME..", ") end end return debugger --[[ if detected then return tostring(detected) .. table.concat(out) end return --]] end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; 2ybr5kbrvyipuqxqwwe7hhmmxf9il5u 2823228 2823226 2026-08-19T23:46:48Z Helpme2222 3106525 2823228 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.ifexist() return tonumber(frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox", args = {frame.args[1]} }) end function p.performance() for i = 1,1000000000 do local tense = "jelen" end return end function p.performance1() local var = "" for i = 1,1000000000 do if var[1] then end end return end function p.performance2() local var = "" for i = 1,1000000000 do if type(var) == "table" then end end return end function p.expand() return frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox" } end function p.title3() return mw.title.getCurrentTitle().fullText end function p.title2() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA", ["Module:Sandbox/22"] = "Module:Sandbox/22" } } local concepts = { grammatical_cases, } local PAGENAME = tostring(mw.title.getCurrentTitle()) local detected = false local out = {} local debugger = {} for i, group in ipairs(concepts) do if group.inessive[PAGENAME] then table.insert(debugger,"Okay, managed TRUE on "..i..":"..group.ablative) detected = detected or true local formattedGroup = {} for memberKey, memberRendervalue in pairs(group.inessive) do table.insert(formattedGroup, "<li>" .. memberRendervalue .. "</li>") end table.insert(out, "<h3>" .. group.ablative .. "</h3><ul>" .. table.concat( formattedGroup ) .. "</ul>" ) table.insert(out, "this sucks ass") return "this sucks ass" else table.insert(debugger,"Managed FALSE on "..i..":"..group.ablative..". Comparator: "..PAGENAME..", ") end end return debugger --[[ if detected then return tostring(detected) .. table.concat(out) end return --]] end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; 6fv3tp0b0j9qyv8lfqwwop8gw9hdffk 2823229 2823228 2026-08-19T23:47:29Z Helpme2222 3106525 2823229 Scribunto text/plain -- My function for teaching grammar local p = {}; local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local grammatical_moods = { "Jelen ido", "Mult ido", "Felszolito mod", "Felteteles mod" } local balls = { grammatical_moods } function p.title() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA" } } local cases2 = "ba" local cases3 = "ba" -- if grammatical_cases.inessive[frame:getParent():getTitle()] then cases2 = "true" else cases2 = "false" end -- if "ANCOVA" == frame:getParent():getTitle() then cases3 = "true" else cases3 = "false" end local detected = false detected = detected or true return mw.title.getCurrentTitle() end function p.ifexist() return tonumber(frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox", args = {frame.args[1]} }) end function p.performance() for i = 1,1000000000 do local tense = "jelen" end return end function p.performance1() local var = "" for i = 1,100000000 do if var[1] then end end return end function p.performance2() local var = "" for i = 1,100000000 do if type(var) == "table" then end end return end function p.expand() return frame:expandTemplate{ title = "User:Helpme2222/Sandbox" } end function p.title3() return mw.title.getCurrentTitle().fullText end function p.title2() local grammatical_cases = { ablative = 1, inessive = { ANCOVA = "ANCOVA", ["Module:Sandbox/22"] = "Module:Sandbox/22" } } local concepts = { grammatical_cases, } local PAGENAME = tostring(mw.title.getCurrentTitle()) local detected = false local out = {} local debugger = {} for i, group in ipairs(concepts) do if group.inessive[PAGENAME] then table.insert(debugger,"Okay, managed TRUE on "..i..":"..group.ablative) detected = detected or true local formattedGroup = {} for memberKey, memberRendervalue in pairs(group.inessive) do table.insert(formattedGroup, "<li>" .. memberRendervalue .. "</li>") end table.insert(out, "<h3>" .. group.ablative .. "</h3><ul>" .. table.concat( formattedGroup ) .. "</ul>" ) table.insert(out, "this sucks ass") return "this sucks ass" else table.insert(debugger,"Managed FALSE on "..i..":"..group.ablative..". Comparator: "..PAGENAME..", ") end end return debugger --[[ if detected then return tostring(detected) .. table.concat(out) end return --]] end function p.sanitizeChar(capture) -- If the set of likely illegal characters to appear in title expands, a rewrite of this as a table is merited if capture == "?" then return "" elseif capture == "#" then return "No. " end end function p.sanitizeTitle() local title = frame.args[1] return mw.ustring.gsub( title, "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar) end function p.sanitizeTitletest2() return mw.ustring.gsub( "Ki vagy? (🌡️🌾⭐🗡️ VS 🪐 🪨 💣 🧿)", "(?:\\?|\\#)", p.sanitizeChar()) end function p.safetyTest() if string.len(frame.args[1]) < 500 then return frame.args[1] else return "" end end --[[ function array_iter(t) local i = 0 return function () i = i + 1 return t[i] end end --]] function p.listInline() --[[ This function is a godsend! https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.text.listToText --]] local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return mw.text.listToText( spritedTable , ", ", ", and " ) end function p.listNavbox() -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.concat local spritedTable = {} for i,entry in ipairs(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) do spritedTable[i] = "{{Sprite|named=1|linked=1|"..entry.."}}" end return table.concat( spritedTable , " • ") end function p.listCount() return table.maxn(balls[tonumber(frame.args[1])]) end -- https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#table.maxn function p.tableTest() return balls[1][1] end function p.todaysBall() --[[ https://www.lua.org/pil/3.6.html The use of explicit indexing here is not strictly semantic; it's just to emphasize the rotation order. ]] local unixDay = math.floor(os.time()/86400) local ballTotalCount = 0 local ballCounts = {} for whichTable,subtable in ipairs(balls) do ballCounts[whichTable] = #subtable ballTotalCount = ballTotalCount + ballCounts[whichTable] end local cycleDayIndex, cycleStartingBall = unixDay % ballTotalCount, math.floor(unixDay/ballTotalCount) % ballTotalCount local cycleTodaysBall if ballTotalCount % 7 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*7) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 11 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*11) % ballTotalCount elseif ballTotalCount % 13 ~= 0 then cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*13) % ballTotalCount else cycleTodaysBall = (cycleStartingBall + cycleDayIndex*(ballTotalCount - 1)) % ballTotalCount end --[[ debug return cycleTodaysBall .. " " .. ballTotalCount .. " " .. os.time() .. " " .. math.floor(os.time()/86400) .. " " .. cycleDayIndex .. " " .. cycleStartingBall ]] for whichTable = 1, #balls do if ballCounts[whichTable] > cycleTodaysBall then return balls[whichTable][cycleTodaysBall + 1] else cycleTodaysBall = cycleTodaysBall - ballCounts[whichTable] end end --]] end return p; my4iupk9bka16n35o7vydgl7ya03zt1 0 331021 2823347 2823045 2026-08-20T02:15:09Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Understanding PTSD and emotions */ Added picture 2823347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:<br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: TRAUMA CUE - DANGER - DISTRESS - AVOID However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? A. His fear response becomes stronger. B. His memory cannot change once it has been formed. C. The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. Think about it: If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[User:StretchBeyond#/media/File:PTSD.png]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing. People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Scenario: The Hotspots of War Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] ''Figure 1''. A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you SEE in the picture? 2. What does the picture TELL you? 3. What do you FEEL in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word GUILT is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ 3azxuktp3o8x4fmqpdy8lysonllg4ab 2823361 2823347 2026-08-20T02:19:56Z StretchBeyond 3105744 2823361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: TRAUMA CUE - DANGER - DISTRESS - AVOID However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? A. His fear response becomes stronger. B. His memory cannot change once it has been formed. C. The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. Think about it: If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing. People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Scenario: The Hotspots of War Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] ''Figure 1''. A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you SEE in the picture? 2. What does the picture TELL you? 3. What do you FEEL in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word GUILT is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ 072d44bv2wpcwlgtpt8vdmj5wsv7tub 2823371 2823361 2026-08-20T02:24:41Z StretchBeyond 3105744 updated figure numbers 2823371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: TRAUMA CUE - DANGER - DISTRESS - AVOID However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? A. His fear response becomes stronger. B. His memory cannot change once it has been formed. C. The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. Think about it: If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing. People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Scenario: The Hotspots of War Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] ''Figure 4''. A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you SEE in the picture? 2. What does the picture TELL you? 3. What do you FEEL in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word GUILT is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ trsqi562zh25jbpy96jc9yj8iw6wb20 2823377 2823371 2026-08-20T02:32:55Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome */ Made format changes to text in learning outcome box. 2823377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID''' However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? '''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger. '''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed. '''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? ''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing. People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Scenario: The Hotspots of War Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] ''Figure 4''. A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you SEE in the picture? 2. What does the picture TELL you? 3. What do you FEEL in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word GUILT is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ j3i6pgpdxcbv775ina7qxvgjg3n19ib 2823379 2823377 2026-08-20T02:35:50Z StretchBeyond 3105744 2823379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID''' However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? '''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger. '''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed. '''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? ''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War''' Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] '''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you SEE in the picture? 2. What does the picture TELL you? 3. What do you FEEL in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word GUILT is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ 1iupel8dtls62b83q5xuk33gjnqyda0 2823518 2823379 2026-08-20T05:08:31Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Ukraine War: an applied example. */ 2823518 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID''' However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? '''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger. '''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed. '''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? ''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War''' Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] '''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you '''SEE''' in the picture? 2. What does the picture '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ fh0v9bbpwd7oiytuwsfqjuyc811pnz9 2823521 2823518 2026-08-20T05:09:45Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Ukraine War: an applied example. */ 2823521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID''' However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? '''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger. '''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed. '''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? ''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War''' Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] '''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you '''SEE''' in the picture? 2. What does the picture '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ ccocjzdb7eej1ruurbjurcvaeenopzq 2823522 2823521 2026-08-20T05:12:03Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Ukraine War: an applied example. */ font changes and edits 2823522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID''' However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? '''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger. '''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed. '''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? ''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress,avoidance,short term relief,, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' ** {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War''' Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] '''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you '''SEE''' in the picture? 2. What does the picture '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ r6e4vwlhk3quf9myoti0yht2eruck30 2823566 2823522 2026-08-20T06:35:57Z StretchBeyond 3105744 2823566 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - <br>How does it work and what are the effects?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} ''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?''' [[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}</ref>]] • PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion). • PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion). • In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson & Dey, 2025). • Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020). Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025). === '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID''' However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment. What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur? '''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger. '''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed. '''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning. '''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play? ''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}} PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery. * A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' * Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? * How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? * How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? * What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) == === Understanding PTSD and emotions === [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] ''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' * ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance'' * cognitive avoidance * intrusive memories * avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes === Why treatment can be difficult === * ''barriers in traditional treatment'' * ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' * ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction'' * Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment. === Why avoidance matters === * ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress, avoidance, short-term relief, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.'' <nowiki><quiz display=simple></nowiki> {Type the question here... |type="()"} + The correct answer. - Wrong or misleading answer. - Wrong or misleading answer. - Wrong or misleading answer. <nowiki></quiz></nowiki> {| class="wikitable" |+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built ! ! ! ! |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | | |} == How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) == * ''Section introduction'' ** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement'' ** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states'' * Lopez, Vermetten & Van Gelderen === What is immersive therapy<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>? === * ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)'' ** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research'' ** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' ** ''3MDR'' ** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating'' ** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)'' === Emotional processing and PTSD === * ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit & Dahl, 2025;'' ** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame'' ** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness'' * ''Memory network activation'' ** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks'' ** ''use of cues - photographs, music,'' ** ''trauma retrival'' [[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]] === Avoidance and emotional confrontation === * ''Bypassing avoidance cycle'' ** ''activating side by side partnerships'' * ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)'' ** ''walking towards trauma, not away'' ** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement'' ** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress'' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning === * ''Create safe associations'' * ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response'' * ''Maximise prediction errors'' * ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)'' === [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] === * ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory'' ** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory'' * ''Taxing working memory'' ** ''dual attention tasks'' * ''Linguistic shifts'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' ** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense'' ** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states'' == How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) == * ''Introduction'' ** ''Facilitating psychological change'' ** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning'' ** ''Highly controlled environments'' ** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult'' *** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers'' *** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?'' ** ''Enhancing memory accessibility'' *** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks'' *** ''patient selected cues'' === [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] === * ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context'' ** ''controlled, graded and personal'' * ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments'' * ''Clinical efficacy'' * ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)'' === Presence and emotional activation === * ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)'' * ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)'' * Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015) ** affect illusion and predictive values ** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion === 3MDR === * ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.'' * ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' * ''three phase protocol - pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation'' * ''Break through potential?'' === [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact === * ''Mind body interaction with the environment'' ** ''Fear agnostic actions'' ** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts'' * ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)'' * ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)'' == What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) == * ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns'' * ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation'' * ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)'' === What does the VR evidence show? === * ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' * ''comparison to standard PTSD care'' * ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)'' * ''Multi sensory benefits'' === What does the 3MDR evidence show? === * ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases'' * ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments'' * ''lingustic progress'' * ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' === What are the limitations? === ''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth& optimism (Niles et al, 2023)'' * ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed'' * ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions'' * ''sample size constraints'' * ''lack of long term data'' * ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment'' * ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness'' * ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' === Ukraine War: an applied example. === {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War''' Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat. Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs. [[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]] '''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025). A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025): 1. What do you '''SEE''' in the picture? 2. What does the picture '''TELL''' you? 3. What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW? When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma. By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative *''Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing'' * ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma'' * ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change'' * ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc'' * ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change'' == See also == [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter) == References == {{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., & Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904 Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., & Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., & Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933 https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672 https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., & Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803 Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7 Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., & Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097 López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244 Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., & Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Magnussen, A., & Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., & Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394 Osman, A., Paczynski, M., & Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128 Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., & McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081 van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., & Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176 van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417 Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., & Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028 Westphal, M., Aldao, A., & Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157 Wiederhold, B. K., & Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930 }} == External links == '''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp '''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd '''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report<nowiki/>https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report '''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c '''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo '''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc '''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans<nowiki/>https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * == Figures == [[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) == Learning features == Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ; Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ; Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ; Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ; Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" ! !Known to self !Not known to self |- |'''Known to others''' |Open area |Blind spot |- |'''Not known to others''' |Hidden area |Unknown |} ; Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Conclusion == * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages?}} == See also == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses}} == References == This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row.}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}} == External links == Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]] __FORCETOC__ n7tui2e4wsrjorqq5igkao1d5j2i8du 0 331023 2823119 2823025 2026-08-19T12:47:29Z U3236349 3005692 2823119 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns:<br>How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? }} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:ChatGPT Image Aug 18, 2026, 10 10 45 PM.png|left|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Image depicting sexual arousal between a female and male]] "As John Gray once said "men are from mars and women are from venus." Think, Emma and Daniel have been dating for several months. They are attracted to each other, but their sexual desire emerge differently. Daniel is often aroused by Emma at the simple sight of her. Early in the relationship, Daniel was finding that it was taking longer for Emma to be sexually interested in him and thought that Emma was less attracted to him. Emma explains that she is attracted to him, but her arousal tends to build in response to how he treats her. {{RoundBoxBottom}}__TOC__Between 1938 to 1954, Alfred Kinsey produced two reports detailing how biological and social factors influence variations in human sexual desire and activity. The reports were designed to establish an empirical foundation to assist future clinicians, educators, and legal authorities concerning what humans actually experience during sexual activities, which was lacking before and during Kinsey's time. ''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic: Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help.'' *sexual arousal is needed because: .... *males generally experience sexual arousal when .... *females generally experience sexual arousal when .... {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * What is sexual arousal? * Why do males and females need to be sexually aroused? * What factors influence sexual arousal in males and females? * Why is understanding sexual arousal important? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Girl with a Pearl Earring.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Painting of a Female - Some people have found that it radiates an intense and captivating intimacy.]] == Concept of Sex & Sexual Arousal == '''Concept of Sex''' * Sex, in the context of human biology, generally refers to the fundamental categories of human species that are, in the broad sense, concerned with a combination of various biological traits that are unique to a subcategory of human species. * There are currently two recognised sexes in humans which are assigned at birth, males and females. * Females refer to humans which are biologically organised for the production and function of an ova, whereas males refer to humans organised for the production and function of sperm (Stévant et al., 2018; Ivan et al., 2022). '''Concept of Sexual Arousal''' * Sexual arousal refers to the mental and physical response cultivated by subjective stimulation that prepares the body for reproductive behaviour and supports subjective feelings of desire (Calabrò et al., 2019, p. 1). *Sexual arousal can serve as a motivational system for sexual behaviour which are likely to be shaped by learned associations, language, and social meanings rather than being determined solely by biological reproductive mechanisms (Roche & Barnes-Holmes, 2002). *human adults can learn new sexual arousal cues by conditioning (T. Klucken ''et al.''Neural activations of the acquisition of conditioned sexual arousal: effects of contingency awareness and sex) - software and hardware develop through many years of personal experiences. == Sexual Arousal in Males == [[File:Tor-Arne Moen Natural selection.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Male veiwing visual stimulus]] *In males, greater solitary desire predicted stronger genital sensations, whereas higher masturbation frequency was associated with lower reported genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026). *Bisexual-identified men are not a uniform group. On average, bisexual men showed arousal to both male and female stimuli, supporting the existence of bisexual arousal but many tend to show stronger arousal to one sex than the other especially when they knowingly lean towards one sex than the other. *Bisexual men display significantly greater variation in arousal patterns than heterosexual or homosexual men (Slettevold et al., 2019). == Sexual Arousal in Females == [[File:Potrait painting.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Shy female|250x250px]] *Sexual arousal in females serves as a coordinated psychophysiological response that prepares the body for sexual activity. Important component of human sexual functioning and reproductive processes (Lake Polan et al., 2003; Adebisi & Carlson, 2024). *More frequent masturbation was linked to stronger genital responses and higher subjective sexual arousal and the rewarding quality of orgasm was associated with stronger genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026). *Heterosexual women showed greater genital arousal to images of erect penises than to images of aroused vulvas - demonstrates that sexual arousal is strongly influenced by both the gender of a sexual stimulus and visible signs of sexual readiness (Spape et al., 2014). *Sexual desire fluctuates substantially in both men and women. Men and women experience remarkably similar short term fluctuations and similarly influenced by emotional and relationship factors (Harris et al., 2023). == Value of Understanding Sexual Arousal == * * * == Learning features == {{Robelbox|title=Test Yourself!|theme=12|}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} ==Conclusion== * * * ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Sexual_arousal|Sexual arousal]] (Wikipedia). * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Sexual motivation and hormones|Sexual motivation and hormones: What role do hormones play in sexual motivation and sexual arousal]] (Book Chapter, 2016). ==References== Adebisi, O. Y., & Carlson, K. (2024). Female sexual interest and arousal disorder. In ''StatPearls''. StatPearls Publishing. Calabrò, R. S., Cacciola, A., Bruschetta, D., Milardi, D., Quattrini, F., Sciarrone, F., Rosa, G., Bramanti, P., & Anastasi, G. (2019). Neuroanatomy and function of human sexual behavior: A neglected or unknown issue? ''Brain and Behavior'', ''9''(12). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1389</nowiki> Ivan, S., Daniela, O., & Jaroslava, B. D. (2022). Sex differences matter: Males and females are equal but not the same. ''Physiology & Behavior'', ''259''(Volume 259), 114038. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.114038</nowiki> Lake Polan, M., Desmond, J. E., Banner, L. L., Pryor, M. R., McCallum, S. W., Atlas, S. W., Glover, G. H., & Arnow, B. A. (2003). Female sexual arousal: A behavioral analysis. ''Fertility and Sterility'', ''80''(6), 1480–1487. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(03)02210-6</nowiki> Roche, B., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2002). Human sexual arousal: A modern behavioral approach. ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', ''3''(2), 145–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099973</nowiki> Slettevold, E., Holmes, L., Gruia, D., Nyssen, C. P., Watts-Overall, T. M., & Rieger, G. (2019). Bisexual men with bisexual and monosexual genital arousal patterns. ''Biological Psychology'', ''148'', 107763. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.107763</nowiki> Spape, J., Timmers, A. D., Yoon, S., Ponseti, J., & Chivers, M. L. (2014). Gender-specific genital and subjective sexual arousal to prepotent sexual features in heterosexual women and men. ''Biological Psychology'', ''102'', 1–9. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.07.008</nowiki> Stévant, I., Papaioannou, M. D., & Nef, S. (2018). A brief history of sex determination. ''Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology'', ''468'', 3–10. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2018.04.004</nowiki> Sánchez-Pérez, G. M., Granados, R., Mangas, P., Cervilla, O., & Sierra, J. C. (2026). Validation of masturbation parameters: A laboratory study measuring psychophysiological and subjective sexual arousal. ''International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology'', ''26''(1), 100662. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100662</nowiki> ==External links== * [https://www.webmd.com/sex/features/sex-drive-how-do-men-women-compare Sex Drive: How do Men and Women Compare?] (Webmd.com). * [https://open.spotify.com/episode/41K95dG0MnHux15rtwywMl?si=A4zCgSxSS9KB10REgbA_dg Women's sexual health: desire, arousal, and orgasms, navigating pre-menopause, and enhancing satisfaction] (Spotify.com). * [https://open.spotify.com/episode/2plfCfD98Now1GMjadaKKq?si=XnkE8OvuSrSfJ-v-NQ9K-w Episode 16: What we get wrong about men's sexual desire] (Spotify.com). [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gender]] 6wo6gphbjgx01qmzm81nfz1dxttanet 2823623 2823119 2026-08-20T10:14:59Z U3236349 3005692 2823623 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sex differences in sexual arousal patterns:<br>How do patterns of sexual arousal differ between males and females? }} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:ChatGPT Image Aug 18, 2026, 10 10 45 PM.png|left|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Image depicting sexual arousal between a female and male]] "As John Gray once said "men are from mars and women are from venus." Think, Emma and Daniel have been dating for several months. They are attracted to each other, but their sexual desire emerge differently. Daniel is often aroused by Emma at the simple sight of her. Early in the relationship, Daniel was finding that it was taking longer for Emma to be sexually interested in him and thought that Emma was less attracted to him. Emma explains that she is attracted to him, but her arousal tends to build in response to how he treats her. {{RoundBoxBottom}}__TOC__''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic: Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help.'' *Summarise what is sexual arousal and the purpose researchers believe it serves *Explain why studying sexual arousal patterns is important, then explain the issues that have arisen that warrant such understanding. *Explain the purpose this chapter will serve for readers - what the takeaway message is, and summarise my response to patterns of sexual arousal between men and women. Proposed start for overview: * Between 1938 to 1954, Alfred Kinsey produced two reports detailing how biological and social factors influence variations in human sexual desire and activity. The reports were designed to establish an empirical foundation to assist future clinicians, educators, and legal authorities concerning what humans actually experience during sexual activities, which was lacking before and during Kinsey's time. * Suggestions for why understanding sexual arousal in males and females is important: ** understand causes of real world problems: *** Sexual Dysfunction, High Risk Sexual Behaviour (BENSON, 2003). ** Means to explore basic questions about the nature of sexual arousal and how its different components are related to each other (BENSON, 2003). ** Develop more accurate and inclusive models of human motivation and behaviour. ** Informing and guiding therapies for various sexual disorders, answering theoretical and physiological questions about huamn sexual response patterns, providing diagnostic information regarding legally and clinically significant sexual attractions (e.g. attraction to minors and sexual disorders) (Katz et al., 2023). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} '''Focus questions''' * What is sexual arousal? * Why do males and females need to be sexually aroused? * What factors influence sexual arousal in males and females? * Why is understanding sexual arousal important? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Concept of sex == * Sex, in the context of human biology, generally refers to the fundamental categories of human species that are, in the broad sense, concerned with a combination of various biological traits that are unique to a subcategory of human species. * There are currently two recognised sexes in humans which are assigned at birth, males and females. * Females refer to humans which are biologically organised for the production and function of an ova, whereas males refer to humans organised for the production and function of sperm (Stévant et al., 2018; Ivan et al., 2022). [[File:Girl with a Pearl Earring.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Painting of a Female - Some people have found that it radiates an intense and captivating intimacy.]] == Concept of sexual arousal == * Sexual arousal refers to the mental and physical response cultivated by subjective stimulation that prepares the body for reproductive behaviour and supports subjective feelings of desire (Calabrò et al., 2019, p. 1). *Sexual arousal is believed to serve as a motivational system for sexual behaviour which are likely to be shaped by learned associations, language, and social meanings rather than being determined solely by biological reproductive mechanisms (Roche & Barnes-Holmes, 2002). *Human adults can learn new sexual arousal cues by conditioning (T. Klucken ''et al.''Neural activations of the acquisition of conditioned sexual arousal: effects of contingency awareness and sex) - software and hardware develop through many years of personal experiences. == Importance of sexual arousal in humans == * * * == Sexual arousal in males == [[File:Tor-Arne Moen Natural selection.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Male veiwing visual stimulus]] *In males, greater solitary desire predicted stronger genital sensations, whereas higher masturbation frequency was associated with lower reported genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026). *Bisexual-identified men are not a uniform group. On average, bisexual men showed arousal to both male and female stimuli, supporting the existence of bisexual arousal but many tend to show stronger arousal to one sex than the other especially when they knowingly lean towards one sex than the other. *Bisexual men display significantly greater variation in arousal patterns than heterosexual or homosexual men (Slettevold et al., 2019). == Sexual arousal in females == [[File:Potrait painting.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Shy female|250x250px]] *Sexual arousal in females serves as a coordinated psychophysiological response that prepares the body for sexual activity. Important component of human sexual functioning and reproductive processes (Lake Polan et al., 2003; Adebisi & Carlson, 2024). *More frequent masturbation was linked to stronger genital responses and higher subjective sexual arousal and the rewarding quality of orgasm was associated with stronger genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026). *Heterosexual women showed greater genital arousal to images of erect penises than to images of aroused vulvas - demonstrates that sexual arousal is strongly influenced by both the gender of a sexual stimulus and visible signs of sexual readiness (Spape et al., 2014). *Sexual desire fluctuates substantially in both men and women. Men and women experience remarkably similar short term fluctuations and similarly influenced by emotional and relationship factors (Harris et al., 2023). == Value of understanding sexual arousal == * * * {{Robelbox|title=Test Yourself!|theme=12}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> {{Robelbox/close}} == Conclusion == * * * ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Sexual_arousal|Sexual arousal]] (Wikipedia). * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Sexual motivation and hormones|Sexual motivation and hormones: What role do hormones play in sexual motivation and sexual arousal]] (Book Chapter, 2016). ==References== Adebisi, O. Y., & Carlson, K. (2024). Female sexual interest and arousal disorder. In ''StatPearls''. StatPearls Publishing. Calabrò, R. S., Cacciola, A., Bruschetta, D., Milardi, D., Quattrini, F., Sciarrone, F., Rosa, G., Bramanti, P., & Anastasi, G. (2019). Neuroanatomy and function of human sexual behavior: A neglected or unknown issue? ''Brain and Behavior'', ''9''(12). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1389</nowiki> Ivan, S., Daniela, O., & Jaroslava, B. D. (2022). Sex differences matter: Males and females are equal but not the same. ''Physiology & Behavior'', ''259''(Volume 259), 114038. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.114038</nowiki> Lake Polan, M., Desmond, J. E., Banner, L. L., Pryor, M. R., McCallum, S. W., Atlas, S. W., Glover, G. H., & Arnow, B. A. (2003). Female sexual arousal: A behavioral analysis. ''Fertility and Sterility'', ''80''(6), 1480–1487. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(03)02210-6</nowiki> Roche, B., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2002). Human sexual arousal: A modern behavioral approach. ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', ''3''(2), 145–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099973</nowiki> Slettevold, E., Holmes, L., Gruia, D., Nyssen, C. P., Watts-Overall, T. M., & Rieger, G. (2019). Bisexual men with bisexual and monosexual genital arousal patterns. ''Biological Psychology'', ''148'', 107763. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.107763</nowiki> Spape, J., Timmers, A. D., Yoon, S., Ponseti, J., & Chivers, M. L. (2014). Gender-specific genital and subjective sexual arousal to prepotent sexual features in heterosexual women and men. ''Biological Psychology'', ''102'', 1–9. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.07.008</nowiki> Stévant, I., Papaioannou, M. D., & Nef, S. (2018). A brief history of sex determination. ''Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology'', ''468'', 3–10. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2018.04.004</nowiki> Sánchez-Pérez, G. M., Granados, R., Mangas, P., Cervilla, O., & Sierra, J. C. (2026). Validation of masturbation parameters: A laboratory study measuring psychophysiological and subjective sexual arousal. ''International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology'', ''26''(1), 100662. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100662</nowiki> ==External links== * [https://www.webmd.com/sex/features/sex-drive-how-do-men-women-compare Sex Drive: How do Men and Women Compare?] (Webmd.com). * [https://open.spotify.com/episode/41K95dG0MnHux15rtwywMl?si=A4zCgSxSS9KB10REgbA_dg Women's sexual health: desire, arousal, and orgasms, navigating pre-menopause, and enhancing satisfaction] (Spotify.com). * [https://open.spotify.com/episode/2plfCfD98Now1GMjadaKKq?si=XnkE8OvuSrSfJ-v-NQ9K-w Episode 16: What we get wrong about men's sexual desire] (Spotify.com). [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gender]] hguyjrcjrkd78ruy1h9jygl2mar8hck 3 331024 2823230 2821456 2026-08-20T00:01:42Z Jtneill 10242 /* Topic page */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2823230 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Amyuniversity!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. 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This is covered in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorial/Wiki editing]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:01, 20 August 2026 (UTC) tlsghut1uke6ovg3az5mrzy2iv0ryij 2823231 2823230 2026-08-20T00:02:01Z Jtneill 10242 /* Topic page */ 2823231 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], Amyuniversity!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 12:05, 11 August 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Topic page == Note that the topic page to work on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] rather than [[User:Amyuniversity]]. The user page should contain a brief bio, link to the chapter, and a list of social contributions. This is covered in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 00:01, 20 August 2026 (UTC) 45x6udsc1nqt8mnw0ravf96ufee49ub 0 331034 2823334 2823061 2026-08-20T02:06:54Z Jtneill 10242 Removed user name - not required 2823334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Perfectionism and procrastination}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]] 1zt8dzlsbmkuxcznkgjqungfazv5n2c 0 331035 2823234 2821629 2026-08-20T00:38:06Z P U3270518 3106535 title 2823234 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation}}What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning?<div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] lyoagk1que91s8ylkfgdz250ch5kpdq 2823235 2823234 2026-08-20T00:41:59Z P U3270518 3106535 Title 2823235 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] feiqlm0p5dcgmusm22zw73wucn8bl36 2823236 2823235 2026-08-20T00:44:01Z P U3270518 3106535 tried changing box colour 2823236 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=5" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] rg23qvuxvsaj9xj4n6d7p881gvemp5b 2823237 2823236 2026-08-20T00:48:24Z P U3270518 3106535 colour change 2823237 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=5" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] sdzquzqhvg19cc2u2l50e5h7y6t6cll 2823238 2823237 2026-08-20T00:56:40Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823238 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=5" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] lzq81920eltwfzf0egzmifgw92v2s01 2823277 2823238 2026-08-20T01:45:08Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 23-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves an offer for her preferred university program. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=5" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] ilcw3nvfroszu65sqisl1ap2w8il75t 2823280 2823277 2026-08-20T01:46:41Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 23-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves an offer for her preferred university program. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=5" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] qppel4dksbvu6s99jkql33w4n9ieg7b 2823281 2823280 2026-08-20T01:47:05Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 23-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves an offer for her preferred university program. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=4" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] eo7n9v8fxvhbp9i29w9s40cl7r8s26x 2823283 2823281 2026-08-20T01:47:33Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823283 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 23-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves an offer for her preferred university program. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=4" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] q9rtksatmifl12el81nvyv0fun9ixpe 2823313 2823283 2026-08-20T01:53:32Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 24-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PHD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] g3o63bg6f7sjlmvhei198iw4mfexrx3 2823316 2823313 2026-08-20T01:54:30Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PHD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] gkkuj62k3tati8npiicwf0ce25rs8hh 2823341 2823316 2026-08-20T02:10:38Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PHD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' 1) What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2) What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3) How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4) How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5) How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 18isndyc1iclvl7zc64484u5wbobciq 2823353 2823341 2026-08-20T02:16:24Z P U3270518 3106535 2823353 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} '''Focus questions''' 1) What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2) What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3) How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4) How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5) How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 3qvgp4qjjv0usr63blzbrk2h4twm5z9 2823355 2823353 2026-08-20T02:17:29Z P U3270518 3106535 2823355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] Scenario Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' 1) What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2) What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3) How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4) How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5) How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] rcsdmwgzf94rq94qof7nkmzf3l060ig 2823394 2823355 2026-08-20T03:11:10Z P U3270518 3106535 2823394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised. She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|thumb|195x195px|'''Figure 1'''. Grace expressing happiness and excitement ]] The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' 1) What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2) What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3) How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4) How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5) How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] khdqsgcddyubf6n9ch8vixqk8pejvtc 2823412 2823394 2026-08-20T03:16:30Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' 1) What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2) What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3) How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4) How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5) How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] dd48qqtfpvmi1kcawitptadsspokq8q 2823415 2823412 2026-08-20T03:17:11Z P U3270518 3106535 /* Overview */ 2823415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Focus questions''' 1) What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2) What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3) How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4) How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5) How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] l0n4uu1bron0kbautu61u0ms15x4qqb 2823436 2823415 2026-08-20T03:24:09Z P U3270518 3106535 2823436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore: Positive emotion dysregulation 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3️⃣ How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4️⃣ How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5️⃣ How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 7x6y5i3mbeinr5ojvt69fqtiwmjn8gf 2823449 2823436 2026-08-20T03:30:38Z P U3270518 3106535 2823449 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore: Positive emotion dysregulation 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3️⃣ How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4️⃣ How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5️⃣ How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} __TOC__ * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] p1w3xvaox3tlaxbw02gri5z6lfnp3dn 2823631 2823449 2026-08-20T11:33:51Z P U3270518 3106535 2823631 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]] Grace is a 25-year-old university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she recieves a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. During the celebration, her boyfriend surprises her by proposing, making it the best day of her life. For next several days, Grace feels unsually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an implusive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. People close to Grace begin to wonder that something is not right. Her close friends tried to calm and slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life is finally coming together in a positive way. What is happening to Grace? Why her positive excitement become so intense? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Positive emotions comprises of a variety of experiences such as joy, interest, love, contentment etc. These emotions play an important role in The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore: Positive emotion dysregulation 1️⃣ What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how can it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions? 2️⃣ What psychological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation ? 3️⃣ How does postive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, emotions, and behaviour? 4️⃣ How can difficulty in regulating positive emotions affect behaviour? 5️⃣ How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} __TOC__ * [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]] 8b813m92f2omzciwk8zv9ogp2prueg3 0 331037 2823314 2823058 2026-08-20T01:53:44Z Mim0502 3106283 2823314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Machiavellian Motivation:<br>What is the Motivational Role of Machiavellianism?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Machiavellianism]] 3v42ai9s7bv6weh80anmjs9rn8arnhf 2823359 2823314 2026-08-20T02:18:29Z Mim0502 3106283 2823359 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Machiavellian motivation:<br>What is the motivational role of Machiavellianism?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]). </div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Machiavellianism]] eyxgs5q9txj56no2xzgp4jtjxmelm6m 0 331092 2823270 2821913 2026-08-20T01:43:08Z U3275909 3106769 2823270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Imagine that Mia and Tom are assigned to work with a classmate who has previously experienced a substance-use disorder. Mia believes that people’s characteristics and behaviours are largely fixed. She assumes that their classmate will always be unreliable and avoids including them in important tasks. Tom believes that people can learn and change, so he is more willing to work with the classmate. However, Tom also wonders why the classmate did not simply choose to change sooner. These reactions demonstrate the complex relationship between mindsets and stigma. Mia’s fixed mindset encourages her to interpret the classmate’s past behaviour as an enduring characteristic. Tom’s growth mindset creates hope for recovery but may also increase blame by suggesting that change is entirely within the person’s control. Fixed and growth mindsets can therefore influence prejudice through different—and sometimes competing—psychological pathways (see Figure 1).{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] lh2t2sw0zj2sidcj5ddrtpe1ntzh6mu 2823344 2823270 2026-08-20T02:14:17Z U3275909 3106769 2823344 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mindset and Stigma: What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Fixed versus growth mindset.png|right|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Fixed and growth mindsets provide contrasting ways of understanding whether human characteristics can change.]] ; Scenario: Two different reactions Emma has recently started a new job. During lunch, she mentions that she has previously received treatment for a substance-use disorder. One colleague believes that personal characteristics are largely fixed and assumes that Emma will always be unreliable. Another colleague believes that people can change and is more open to working with her. However, this colleague also wonders why Emma did not change her behaviour sooner. The colleagues' reactions demonstrate how beliefs about changeability may influence stigma. A [[w:Mindset|fixed mindset]] may encourage stable stereotypes, whereas a growth mindset may create hope for change. However, believing that change is possible can also increase blame when a person is perceived as responsible for not changing. This chapter examines these competing pathways (see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Growth and fixed mindsets describe whether human characteristics are perceived as changeable or relatively permanent (Molden & Dweck, 2006). * Fixed mindsets may reinforce [[wikipedia:Social stigma|stigma]] by encouraging essentialist beliefs, stereotypes and pessimism about people's capacity to change (Levy & Dweck, 1999). * Growth mindsets may weaken essentialism and encourage positive social contact, but they may also increase personal blame when a stigmatised characteristic is considered controllable (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). * Understanding these competing effects is important for designing interventions that reduce prejudice without blaming members of stigmatised groups. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' # What are growth and fixed mindsets, and how are they connected to stigma? # How do fixed mindsets contribute to stereotyping, essentialism and prejudice? # Through what processes can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? # When can growth mindsets unintentionally increase blame and stigma? # How can mindset research inform effective stigma-reduction interventions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are growth and fixed mindsets? == * Mindsets, also called implicit theories, are beliefs about whether human characteristics are stable or capable of development (Molden & Dweck, 2006). * These beliefs affect how people interpret behaviour, form impressions and predict whether individuals or groups can change. * Mindsets can concern intelligence, personality, prejudice or specific stigmatised characteristics, rather than operating as one universal belief. === Fixed mindsets === * A fixed or entity mindset views personal attributes as relatively stable and difficult to change. * Fixed mindsets encourage people to explain behaviour in terms of enduring traits rather than situations and social contexts (Chiu et al., 1997). * These trait-based explanations can encourage rapid judgements and reduce attention to evidence that contradicts an existing stereotype. === Growth mindsets === * A growth or incremental mindset views attributes as capable of development through experience, strategies, support and changes in circumstances. * Growth mindsets are associated with mastery-oriented goals and adaptive responses to setbacks (Burnette et al., 2013). * In social settings, growth beliefs may increase expectations that individuals, relationships and prejudiced attitudes can improve. == How do fixed mindsets sustain prejudice and stigma? == * Fixed mindsets may sustain prejudice by presenting social differences and negative characteristics as natural, stable and unavoidable. * They can influence how people categorise others, interpret group differences and respond to members of stigmatised groups. * Two important mechanisms are psychological essentialism and negative expectations about social interaction. === Essentialism and stereotyping === * [[wikipedia:Psychological essentialism|Psychological essentialism]] is the belief that members of a social group share an underlying essence that determines their characteristics. * Fixed mindsets may encourage groups to be perceived as uniform, fundamentally different and resistant to change. * Children with static conceptions of people have demonstrated greater stereotype formation than children taught more dynamic conceptions (Levy & Dweck, 1999). * Essentialism may legitimise stigma by making social inequalities and group differences appear inevitable. === Negative expectations and avoidance === * Believing that prejudice is fixed may create pessimistic expectations about future intergroup interactions. * Negative expectations can contribute to anxiety, avoidance and reduced willingness to engage with people from different social groups. * Beliefs about whether racial bias is changeable predict different strategies during interracial interactions (Neel & Shapiro, 2012). * Avoidance reduces opportunities for positive contact that could otherwise challenge stereotypes and prejudice. == How can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? == * Growth mindsets may reduce stigma by challenging the assumption that individuals and groups possess permanent negative qualities. * They can promote situational explanations, expectations of improvement and openness to new information. * Reduced essentialism and more positive intergroup contact are two important stigma-reduction pathways. === Reduced essentialism === * Growth mindsets weaken assumptions that behaviour reflects an inherent and unchangeable personal or group essence. * Reduced essentialism may make people less likely to generalise one person's behaviour to an entire social group. * Growth beliefs encourage greater attention to circumstances, learning and the possibility of individual variation. * This pathway may reduce prejudice by making stereotypical judgements appear less natural or inevitable (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). === Positive intergroup contact === * Growth mindsets may create more positive expectations about interactions with members of other social groups. * Positive expectations can reduce intergroup anxiety and increase willingness to communicate. * Believing that prejudice can change has been associated with improved interracial interactions (Carr et al., 2012). * Growth mindsets have also been associated with stronger intentions to engage in positive interracial contact (Hoyt et al., 2024). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Case study follow-up''' Emma's colleague learns that recovery is possible but is influenced by treatment access, social support, discrimination and life circumstances. Instead of assuming that Emma is permanently unreliable or entirely responsible for her past difficulties, the colleague recognises both her capacity for growth and the barriers she has faced. * How has the colleague's interpretation changed? * Why is recognising both changeability and context important? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == When can growth mindsets increase stigma? == * Growth mindsets are not automatically protective against prejudice because changeability can be interpreted as controllability. * If a characteristic seems controllable, observers may conclude that the person is responsible for developing or continuing to possess it. * Consequently, growth beliefs may reduce stigma through lower essentialism while simultaneously increasing it through greater blame. === Perceived control and personal blame === * Growth messages may imply that people should be capable of changing through sufficient effort. * If change does not occur, observers may attribute this to laziness, poor choices or a lack of motivation. * Research on weight stigma found that changeability beliefs could reduce essentialism while also increasing blame (Hoyt et al., 2017). * This combination is described as a "double-edged sword" because the two pathways can produce opposing effects on prejudice (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). === Structural and situational barriers === * Individual effort occurs within social conditions that may either support or restrict opportunities for change. * Poverty, discrimination, treatment access, social support and institutional policies can influence outcomes. * Growth messages that ignore these barriers risk presenting complex stigmatised conditions as matters of individual choice. * Stigma-reduction messages should therefore communicate the possibility of change without assigning complete responsibility to the stigmatised person. == How can mindsets inform stigma-reduction interventions? == * Mindset research can inform interventions in education, healthcare, workplaces and public communication. * Effective interventions should preserve hope and self-efficacy while avoiding messages that intensify blame. * Strategies should address social environments and structural barriers in addition to individual beliefs. === Designing balanced growth messages === * Messages should explain that change may be possible through effective strategies, appropriate resources and social support. * They should explicitly distinguish between changeability and complete personal controllability. * Interventions should acknowledge the environmental and structural barriers that can make change difficult. * Balanced messages can promote reduced essentialism without implying that people are solely responsible for their stigmatised circumstances (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). === Practical applications === * Schools can teach students that stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes can be identified, challenged and changed. * Healthcare campaigns can communicate hope about treatment and recovery while acknowledging barriers and avoiding blame. * Workplaces can combine growth-oriented inclusion programs with policies addressing discrimination and unequal opportunities. * Interventions should be evaluated within the particular population and type of stigma rather than assuming that one message will work in every context. <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes the double-edged effect of a growth mindset? |type="()"} - Growth mindsets always eliminate prejudice and stigma. - Growth mindsets have no relationship with prejudice or stigma. + Growth mindsets may reduce essentialism but increase personal blame. - Growth mindsets make every personal characteristic easy to change. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Fixed mindsets can sustain prejudice by encouraging essentialism, stereotyping and pessimistic expectations about change. * Growth mindsets can reduce stigma by weakening essentialist beliefs and encouraging positive expectations about individuals and intergroup contact. * However, growth mindsets may increase stigma when changeability is interpreted as personal controllability and responsibility. * The role of mindset is therefore contextual rather than universally positive or negative. * Effective stigma-reduction interventions should promote realistic possibilities for growth while recognising situational and structural barriers. * Overall, growth mindsets are most likely to reduce prejudice when messages combine hope for change with empathy, social support and reduced blame. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset and challenge|Growth mindset and challenge]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Mindset|Mindset]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Psychological essentialism|Psychological essentialism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social stigma|Social stigma]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|Burnette, J. L., O'Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''139''(3), 655–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531 Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(3), 452–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028849 Chiu, C., Hong, Y., & Dweck, C. S. (1997). Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''73''(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.19 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2020). Growth mindset messaging in stigma-relevant contexts: Harnessing benefits without costs. ''Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', ''7''(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732220941216 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2025). How mindsets can mitigate or sustain prejudice. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''34''(2), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214241301290 Hoyt, C. L., Burnette, J. L., Auster-Gussman, L., Blodorn, A., & Major, B. (2017). The obesity stigma asymmetry model: The indirect and divergent effects of blame and changeability beliefs on antifat prejudice. ''Stigma and Health'', ''2''(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000026 Hoyt, C. L., Rafferty, D., Earl, S., & Burnette, J. L. (2024). Growth mindsets of people can promote interracial contact intentions among White Americans via positive expectations and reduced anxiety. ''Group Processes & Intergroup Relations'', ''27''(4), 903–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231187262 Levy, S. R., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). The impact of children's static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation. ''Child Development'', ''70''(5), 1163–1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00085 Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(3), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.192 Neel, R., & Shapiro, J. R. (2012). Is racial bias malleable? Whites' lay theories of racial bias predict divergent strategies for interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028237}} ==External links== * [https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeatest.html Project Implicit] (Harvard University) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/racism-bias-discrimination Racism, bias, and discrimination] (American Psychological Association) * ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] jfu5ehmn8mzitzubck27ju8un686luh 2823530 2823344 2026-08-20T05:26:30Z U3275909 3106769 2823530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mindset and Stigma: What role do growth versus fixed mindsets play in prejudice and stigma?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} Scenario - Two different reactions Emma has recently started a new job. During lunch, she mentions that she has previously received treatment for a substance-use disorder. One colleague believes that personal characteristics are largely fixed and assumes that Emma will always b unraliable. Another colleague also wonders why Emma did not change her behaviour sooner, The colleagues' reactions demonstrate how beliefs about changeability may influence stigma. A fixed mindset(link) may encourage stable stereotypes, whereas a growth mindset may create hope for change. However, believing that change is possible can also increase blame when a person is perceived as responsible for not changing. This chapter examines these competing pathways (see Figure 1){{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Fixed versus growth mindset.png|thumb|Figure 1. Fixed and growth mindsets provide contrasting ways of understanding whether human characteristics can change.]] * Growth and fixed mindsets describe whether human characteristics are perceived as changeable or relatively permanent (Molden & Dweck, 2006). * Fixed mindsets may reinforce [[wikipedia:Social_stigma|stigma]] by encouraging essentialist beliefs, stereotypes and pessimism about people's capacity to change (Levy & Dweck, 1999). * Growth mindsets may weaken essentialism and encourage positive social contract, but they may also increase personal blame when a stigmatised characteristic is considered controllable (Hoyt & Burntt, 2020). * Understanding these competing effects is important for designing interventions that reduce prejudice without blaming members of stigmatised groups. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' 1. What are growth and fixed mindsets, and how are they connected to stigma 2. How do fixed mindsets contribute to stretyping, essentialism and prejudice 3. Through what processes growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? 4. When can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? 5. How can mindset research inform effective stigma-reduction interventions {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What are growth and fixed mindsets? == * Mindsets, also called implicit theories, are beliefs about whether human characteristics are stable or capable or development (Molden & Dweck, 2006). * These beliefs affect how people interpret behaviour, form impressions and predict whether individuals or groups can change. * Mindsets can concern intelligence, personality, prejudice or specific stigmatised characteristics, rather than operating as one universal belief. === Fixed mindsets === * A fixed or entity mindset views personal attributes as relatively stable and difficult to change. * Fixed mindsets encourage people to explain behaviour in terms of enduring traits rather than situations and social contexts (Chiu et al., 1977). * These trait-based explanations can encourage rapid judgements and reduce attention to evidence that contradicts an existing stereotype. === Growth mindsets === * A growth or incremental mindset views attributes as capable of development through experience, strategies, support and changes in circumstances. * Growth mindsets are associated with mastery-orientated goals and adaptive responses to setbacks (Burnette et al., 2013) == How do fixed mindsets sustain prejudice and stigma? == * Fixed mindsets may sustain prejudice by presenting social differences and negative characteristics as natural, stable and unavoidable. * They can influence how people categorise others, interpret group differences and respond to members of stigmatised groups. * Two important mechanisms are psychological essentialism and negative expectations about social interaction. === Essentialism and stereotyping === * [[wikipedia:Essentialism#In_psychology|Psychological essentialism]] is the belief that members of a social group share an underlying essence that determines their characteristics. * Fixed mindsets may encourage groups to be percieved as uniform, fundamentally different and resistent to change. * Children with static conceptions of people have demonstrated greater stereotype formation than children taught more dynamic conceptions (Levy & Dweck, 1999). * Essentialism may legitimate stigma by making social inequalities and group differences appear inevitable. === Negative expectations and avoidance === * Believing that prejudice is fixed may create pessimistic expectations about future intergroup interactions, * Negative expectations can contribute to anxiety, avoidance and reduced willingness to engage with people from different social groups. * Beleifs about whether racial bias is changeable predict different strategies during interracial interactions (Neel & Shapiro, 2012). * Avoidance reduces opportunities for positive contact that could otherwise challenge steretypes and prejudice. == How can growth mindsets reduce prejudice and stigma? == * Growth mindsets may reduce stigma by challenging the assumption that individuals and groups possess permanent negative qualities. * They can promote situational explanations, expectations of improvement and openness to new information. * Reduced essentialism and more positive intergroup contract are two important stigma-reduction. === Reduced essentialism === * Growth mindsets weaken assumptions that behaviour reflects an inherent and unchangeable personal or group essence * Reduced essentialism may make people less likely to generalise one person's behaviour to an entire social group. * Growth beliefs encourage greater attention to circumstances, learning and the possbility of individual variation. * This pathway may reduce prejudice by making stereotypical judgement appear less natural or inevitable (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). === Positive intergroup contact === * Growth mindsets weaken assumptions that behaviour reflects an inherent and unchangeable personal or group essence. * Reduce essentialism may make people less likely to generalise one person's behaviour to an entire social group. * Growth beliefs encourage greater attention to circumstances, learning and the possibility of individual variation. * This pathway may reduce intergroup anxiety and increase willingness to communicate. * Believing that prejudice can change has been associated with improved interracial interactions (Carr et al., 2012). * Growth mindsets have also been associated with stronger intentions to engage in positive interracial contact (Hoyt et al., 2024) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Case study follow-up''' Emma's colleague learns that recovery is possible but is influenced by treatment access, social support, discrimination and life circumstances. Instead of assuming that Emma is permanately unrealiable or entirely responsible for her past difficulties, the colleague recognises both her capacity for growth and the barriers she has faced. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == When can growth mindsets increase stigma? == * Growth mindsets are not automatically protective against prejudice because changeability can be interpreted as controllability. * If a characteristic seems controllable, observes may conclude that the person is responsible for developing or continuing to possess it. * Consequently, growth beliefs may reduce stigma through lower essentialism while simultaneously increasing it through greater blame. === Perceived control and personal blame === * Growth messages may imply that people should be capable of changing through sufficient effort. * If change does not occur, observers may attribute this to laziness, poor choices or a lack of motivation. * Research on weight stigma found that changeability beliefs could reduce essentialism while also increasing blame (Hoyt et al., 2017). * This combination is described as a "double-edged sword" because the two pathways can produce opposing effects on prejudice (Hoyt & Burnette, 2020). === Structural and situational barriers === * Individual effort occurs within social conditions that may either support or restrict opportunities for change. * Poverty, discrimination, treatment access, social support and institutional policies can influence outcomes. * Growth messages that ignore these barriers risk presenting complex stigmatised conditions as matters of individual choice. == How can mindsets inform stigma-reduction interventions? == * Mindset research can inform interventions in education, healthcare, workplace and public communication. * Effective interventions should preserve hope and self-efficacy while avoiding messages that intensify blame. * Strategies should address social environments and structural barriers in addition to individual beliefs. === Designing balanced growth messages === * Messages should explain that change may be possible through effective strategies, appropriate resources and social support. * They should explicitly distinguish between changeability and complete personal controllability. * Interventions should acknowledge the environmental and structural barriers that can make change difficult. * Balanced messages can promote reduced essentialism without implying that people are solely responsible for their stigmatised circumstances (Hoyt & Burnette, 2025). === Practical applications === * Schools can teach students that stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes can be identified, challenged and changed. * Healthcare campaigns can communicate hope about treatment and recovery while acknowledging barriers and avoiding blame. * Workplaces can combine growth-oriented inclusion programs with policies addressing discrimination and unequal opportunities. * Interventions should be evaluated within the particular population and type of stigma rather than assuming that one message will in every context. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ; <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes the double-edged effect of a growth mindset? |type="()"} - Growth mindsets always eliminate prejudice and stigma. - Growth mindsets have no relationship with prejudice or stigma. + Growth mindsets may reduce essentialism but increase personal blame. - Growth mindsets make every personal characteristic easy to change. </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Fixed mindsets can sustain prejudice by encouraging essentialism, stereotyping and pessimistic expectations about change. * Growth mindsets can reduce stigma by weakening essentialist beliefs and encouraging positive expectations about individuals and intergroup contact. * However, growth mindsets may increase stigma when changeability is interrupted as personal controllability and responsibility. * The role of mindset is therefore contextual rather than universally positive or negative. * Effective stigma-reduction interventions should promote realistic possibilities for growth while recognising situational and structural barriers. * Overall, growth mindsets are most likely to reduce prejudice when messages combine hope for change with empathy, social support and reduced blame. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset and challenge|Growth mindset and challenge]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[wikipedia:Mindset|Mindset]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Psychological essentialism|Psychological essentialism]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social stigma|Social stigma]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|Burnette, J. L., O'Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''139''(3), 655–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531 Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(3), 452–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028849 Chiu, C., Hong, Y., & Dweck, C. S. (1997). Lay dispositionism and implicit theories of personality. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''73''(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.19 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2020). Growth mindset messaging in stigma-relevant contexts: Harnessing benefits without costs. ''Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', ''7''(2), 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732220941216 Hoyt, C. L., & Burnette, J. L. (2025). How mindsets can mitigate or sustain prejudice. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''34''(2), 82–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214241301290 Hoyt, C. L., Burnette, J. L., Auster-Gussman, L., Blodorn, A., & Major, B. (2017). The obesity stigma asymmetry model: The indirect and divergent effects of blame and changeability beliefs on antifat prejudice. ''Stigma and Health'', ''2''(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000026 Hoyt, C. L., Rafferty, D., Earl, S., & Burnette, J. L. (2024). Growth mindsets of people can promote interracial contact intentions among White Americans via positive expectations and reduced anxiety. ''Group Processes & Intergroup Relations'', ''27''(4), 903–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302231187262 Levy, S. R., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). The impact of children's static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation. ''Child Development'', ''70''(5), 1163–1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00085 Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(3), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.192 Neel, R., & Shapiro, J. R. (2012). Is racial bias malleable? Whites' lay theories of racial bias predict divergent strategies for interracial interactions. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''103''(1), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028237}} ==External links== * [https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/takeatest.html Project Implicit] (Harvard University) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/racism-bias-discrimination Racism, bias, and discrimination] (American Psychological Association) * * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Stigma]] 6jfh3nwa9b3cy34q4js8p7sz1i4e5fa 2 331094 2823290 2822506 2026-08-20T01:50:10Z U3275909 3106769 2823290 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is Georgia, and I am a third-year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/study-at-uc?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=broad+match&utm_content=undergrad&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7s38ZFwUdkDDrBRtqOENmM_QdB3O6RJP15KuNxQNvXoB15MYk-wAhxoCopgQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793584539699!b!!g!!uc%20degrees!20950774508!158167391013&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950774508&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtSqxRjhI7_V9DA-TxXE_SRD&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7s38ZFwUdkDDrBRtqOENmM_QdB3O6RJP15KuNxQNvXoB15MYk-wAhxoCopgQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a double degree in Psychology and Health Science Human Movement and currently studying the class [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am particularly interested in the relationship between psychological wellbeing, physical performance, and sport. My long-term goal is to become a sport psychologist and support athletes with their mental health, motivation, confidence, and performance. == Book chapter I’m working on == I am currently developing a book chapter titled '''<nowiki>[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and stigma]]</nowiki>''' for the ''Motivation and Emotion'' book project. The chapter explores how different mindsets influence stigma, including the way people perceive, judge, and respond to individuals experiencing mental health difficulties. It also examines how psychological research may help reduce stigma and encourage more understanding and supportive attitudes. == Social contributions == I am interested in contributing to the wellbeing of others through psychology, health promotion, and community involvement. Through my studies, I hope to develop the knowledge and practical skills needed to support people from diverse backgrounds. I am particularly passionate about mental health awareness, reducing stigma, and helping create environments where people feel comfortable seeking support. == Online profiles == You can also find me through the following profiles: * University of Canberra * LinkedIn: Add your LinkedIn profile link here * Wikiversity contributions: <nowiki>[[Special:Contributions/YourUsername|View my contributions]]</nowiki> 3ovuvspb9yocludfy9su2d7u02xcob3 2823296 2823290 2026-08-20T01:51:43Z U3275909 3106769 2823296 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is '''Georgia Russell,''' and I am a third-year student at the University of Canberra studying a double degree in Psychology and Health Science Human Movement. I am particularly interested in the relationship between psychological wellbeing, physical performance, and sport. My origin long-term goal was to become a sport psychologist and support athletes with their mental health, motivation, confidence, and performance. However, I have been looking further into joining defence by becoming a performance psychologist for individuals in the airforce to help cope with anxiety, stress and pressure to succeed. == Book chapter I’m working on == I am currently developing a book chapter titled '''<nowiki>[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and stigma]]</nowiki>''' for the ''Motivation and Emotion'' book project. The chapter explores how different mindsets influence stigma, including the way people perceive, judge, and respond to individuals experiencing mental health difficulties. It also examines how psychological research may help reduce stigma and encourage more understanding and supportive attitudes. == Social contributions == I am interested in contributing to the wellbeing of others through psychology, health promotion, and community involvement. Through my studies, I hope to develop the knowledge and practical skills needed to support people from diverse backgrounds. I am particularly passionate about mental health awareness, reducing stigma, and helping create environments where people feel comfortable seeking support. == Online profiles == You can also find me through the following profiles: * University of Canberra * LinkedIn: Add your LinkedIn profile link here * Wikiversity contributions: <nowiki>[[Special:Contributions/YourUsername|View my contributions]]</nowiki> ibwa00o0xhi5t6y8wiinza5upzgdy7b 2823312 2823296 2026-08-20T01:53:28Z U3275909 3106769 2823312 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is '''Georgia Russell,''' and I am a third-year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/study-at-uc?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=broad+match&utm_content=undergrad&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7s38ZFwUdkDDrBRtqOENmM_QdB3O6RJP15KuNxQNvXoB15MYk-wAhxoCopgQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793584539699!b!!g!!uc%20degrees!20950774508!158167391013&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950774508&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtSqxRjhI7_V9DA-TxXE_SRD&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7s38ZFwUdkDDrBRtqOENmM_QdB3O6RJP15KuNxQNvXoB15MYk-wAhxoCopgQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a double degree in Psychology and Health Science Human Movement and taking the class [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am particularly interested in the relationship between psychological wellbeing, physical performance, and sport. My origin long-term goal was to become a [https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/sports sport psychologist] and support athletes with their mental health, motivation, confidence, and performance. However, I have been looking further into joining defence by becoming a performance psychologist for individuals in the airforce to help cope with anxiety, stress and pressure to succeed. == Book chapter I’m working on == I am currently developing a book chapter titled '''<nowiki>[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and stigma]]</nowiki>''' for the ''Motivation and Emotion'' book project. The chapter explores how different mindsets influence stigma, including the way people perceive, judge, and respond to individuals experiencing mental health difficulties. It also examines how psychological research may help reduce stigma and encourage more understanding and supportive attitudes. == Social contributions == I am interested in contributing to the wellbeing of others through psychology, health promotion, and community involvement. Through my studies, I hope to develop the knowledge and practical skills needed to support people from diverse backgrounds. I am particularly passionate about mental health awareness, reducing stigma, and helping create environments where people feel comfortable seeking support. == Online profiles == You can also find me through the following profiles: * University of Canberra * LinkedIn: Add your LinkedIn profile link here * Wikiversity contributions: <nowiki>[[Special:Contributions/YourUsername|View my contributions]]</nowiki> f8rzdqxu9z1ltdsnadek0a2naj0mkmp 2823333 2823312 2026-08-20T02:06:12Z U3275909 3106769 2823333 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello! My name is '''Georgia Russell,''' and I am a third-year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/study-at-uc?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=broad+match&utm_content=undergrad&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7s38ZFwUdkDDrBRtqOENmM_QdB3O6RJP15KuNxQNvXoB15MYk-wAhxoCopgQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793584539699!b!!g!!uc%20degrees!20950774508!158167391013&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950774508&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtSqxRjhI7_V9DA-TxXE_SRD&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7s38ZFwUdkDDrBRtqOENmM_QdB3O6RJP15KuNxQNvXoB15MYk-wAhxoCopgQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a double degree in Psychology and Health Science Human Movement and taking the class [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am particularly interested in the relationship between psychological wellbeing, physical performance, and sport. My origin long-term goal was to become a [[wikipedia:Sport_psychology|sport psychologist]] and support athletes with their mental health, motivation, confidence, and performance. However, I have been looking further into joining defence by becoming a performance psychologist for individuals in the airforce to help cope with anxiety, stress and pressure to succeed. [[File:With Coach Nikitan.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1 .''' Sport psychology is an essential to channel physiological performance and mental performance ]] == Book chapter I’m working on == I am currently developing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and Stigma]] for the ''Motivation and Emotion'' book project. The chapter explores how different mindsets influence stigma, including the way people perceive, judge, and respond to individuals experiencing mental health difficulties. It also examines how psychological research may help reduce stigma and encourage more understanding and supportive attitudes. == Social contributions == I am interested in contributing to the wellbeing of others through psychology, health promotion, and community involvement. While playing with the Bungendore Mudchooks Rugby Union team, throughout my season I have organised and held sessions with other players, coaches and management about mindfulness before important games and how to prepare the mind before the game as well as the strength of the body. This new system was valued and appreciated amongst coaches and players and has been entered as a training exercise and requirement within both the male and female teams. Through my studies, I hope to develop the knowledge and practical skills needed to support people from diverse backgrounds. I am particularly passionate about mental health awareness, reducing stigma, and helping create environments where people feel comfortable seeking support. == Online profiles == You can also find me through the following profiles: * University of Canberra * LinkedIn: Add your LinkedIn profile link here * Wikiversity contributions: <nowiki>[[Special:Contributions/YourUsername|View my contributions]]</nowiki> hw7zd843hytj7mktfhhyrw9d8sg9rjy 0 331095 2823474 2821816 2026-08-20T03:49:35Z U3275984 3106752 Title and subtitle added 2823474 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Alcohol use for emotional regulation:<br>Why and how do people use alcohol to regulate their emotions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 91hba34nckyqsnr09y5jhl25v0j5d87 0 331098 2823246 2823070 2026-08-20T01:37:05Z U3284040 3106549 2823246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links '''Key points''' For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==What is Emotional Regulation?== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Benefits of Social Connection== * Key point 1 - subheading for co-regulation * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Loneliness and Poor Social Connection== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] os64gtru9pzl106yrla0v7fbtrv3etz 2823273 2823246 2026-08-20T01:44:25Z U3284040 3106549 2823273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Emotional Regulation?== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Benefits of Social Connection== * Key point 1 - subheading for co-regulation * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Loneliness and Poor Social Connection== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Info For Assignment== '''Headings''' Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links '''Key points''' For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations '''Figures''' [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) '''Learning features''' Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] t003aqglsxuiec4e5vw4k50r6ova72z 2823482 2823273 2026-08-20T03:57:26Z U3284040 3106549 /* See also */ 2823482 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Emotional Regulation?== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Benefits of Social Connection== * Key point 1 - subheading for co-regulation * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Loneliness and Poor Social Connection== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Info For Assignment== '''Headings''' Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links '''Key points''' For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations '''Figures''' [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) '''Learning features''' Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] hmrckecmvtvkn2sj232qyuotng1pidd 2823483 2823482 2026-08-20T03:58:46Z U3284040 3106549 /* Loneliness and Poor Social Connection */ 2823483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Emotional Regulation?== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Benefits of Social Connection== * Key point 1 - subheading for co-regulation * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Loneliness and Poor Social Connection (Rename Title)== * Key point 1 - Loneliness * Key Point 2 - Social Anxiety * Key Point 3 ==Info For Assignment== '''Headings''' Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links '''Key points''' For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations '''Figures''' [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) '''Learning features''' Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] s5ux95tuqdymvuac83j4kvv659z0a7p 2823484 2823483 2026-08-20T03:59:39Z U3284040 3106549 /* See also */ 2823484 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Emotional Regulation?== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Benefits of Social Connection== * Key point 1 - subheading for co-regulation * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Loneliness and Poor Social Connection (Rename Title)== * Key point 1 - Loneliness * Key Point 2 - Social Anxiety * Key Point 3 ==Info For Assignment== '''Headings''' Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links '''Key points''' For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations '''Figures''' [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) '''Learning features''' Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] kk0tsv5c7y5ta13f8py06itxbbtp7p6 2823634 2823484 2026-08-20T11:43:07Z U3284040 3106549 2823634 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Social connection and emotion regulation<br>How do social relationships help people's emotions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Emotional Regulation?== * Key point 1 * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Benefits of Social Connection== * Key point 1 - subheading for co-regulation * Key Point 2 * Key Point 3 ==Loneliness and Poor Social Connection (Rename Title)== * Key point 1 - Loneliness * Key Point 2 - Social Anxiety * Key Point 3 ==Info For Assignment== '''Headings''' Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links '''Key points''' For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations '''Figures''' [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) '''Learning features''' Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]] 0kk0peh4r7ppg0c45d17lq5gxl210wa 0 331099 2823453 2822714 2026-08-20T03:32:06Z U3285438 3103750 /* External links */ added an external link 2823453 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotion dysregulation:<br>What is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:Microsoft Fluent UI – ic fluent desktop cursor 20 regular.svg|Microsoft_Fluent_UI_–_ic_fluent_desktop_cursor_20_regular|150px|right|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Repeatedly clicking the laptop trackpad to elicit a response.]] '''Scenario: Disproportionate anger response''' You are trying to upload an assignment for your statistics class last minute and the submissions portal freezes exactly as you press “submit”. You watch the cursor’s loading icon spin again and again, likely because the portal is overwhelmed by other last minute submissions. Though you still have 15 minutes before the deadline, you find yourself continuing to aggressively spam click the laptop trackpad and become consumed by a feeling of frustration (see Figure 1). You can feel your heart rate increase, your jaw tighten and leg shake beneath the desk. Then the trackpad becomes stuck and will not click anymore. You shove your laptop aside and question why nothing ever goes your way. Later, you wonder why you did not just wait a few minutes for the submissions portal to respond. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Focus questions''' 1. How can emotion dysregulation be defined? 2. How does emotion dysregulation impact daily functioning? 3. What is the associated between emotion dysregulation and psychological disorders? 4. What strategies can help manage emotion dysregulation? 5. How does emotion dysregulation present across contexts?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_how_to_manage_your_emotions How to manage your emotions] (TED-Ed) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]] i8ols8hjeii7c0suypq3ucjejls2g5f 0 331100 2823599 2821919 2026-08-20T08:27:53Z U3239236 3106753 2823599 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] ktxxc7es4ay7avxyjkgjmfkpmeihto6 2823622 2823599 2026-08-20T10:13:44Z U3239236 3106753 2823622 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence }}'''How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?'''<div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) — the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 7utpqkvft6yfo30j774rzonzt0kmjkb 2823624 2823622 2026-08-20T10:17:47Z U3239236 3106753 2823624 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence }}'''How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?'''<div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the ability to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] == Focus Questions == * What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? * What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? * How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? * How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 5lj2gq88p47lf3znc69yytvt3040jjh 2823625 2823624 2026-08-20T10:21:13Z U3239236 3106753 added topic 2823625 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Emotional intelligence }}'''How does emotional intelligence affect emotional wellbeing?'''<div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict. Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively. Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations? One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the ability to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing. Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically. Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] == Focus Questions == * What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? * What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? * How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? * How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? * Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? * How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? == What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? == Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood. == Defining emotional intelligence == * Introduce emotional intelligence. * Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information. * Explain that EI is not simply "being emotional" or "being a nice person". * Introduce major conceptualisations of EI. * Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research. === Ability model of emotional intelligence === Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model. Explain the four branches: # Perceiving emotions # Using emotions to facilitate thought # Understanding emotions # Managing emotions Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing. '''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence''' Create a simple diagram showing: Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions == Trait emotional intelligence == * Explain trait EI. * Distinguish trait EI from ability EI. * Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies. * Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing. == Defining emotional wellbeing == * Define emotional wellbeing. * Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness. * Discuss positive and negative affect. * Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant. * Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing. === Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive === A useful distinction should be established here: Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress. Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences. == Key points == For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] i3q2dp7t6j5so08mr00u5t3dygcl497 0 331103 2823384 2821837 2026-08-20T02:56:39Z U3247927 3005952 uploaded ai generated image from ChatGPT and edited the title and subtitle 2823384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic entertainment and love beliefs:<br>How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:ChatGPT Image of couple watching romantic media together.png|right|375x375px]] The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] 3shiwppv4kp6lta98pwkihxuw0ep1y6 0 331104 2823385 2821902 2026-08-20T03:03:58Z U3292769 3106878 2823385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Excitement as an Emotion:<br>What is the emotional excitement and how does it influence behaviour and wellbeing?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Excitement]] 8bs3l16vbyc1cp42tzo06yvzm82407a 0 331109 2823473 2821900 2026-08-20T03:49:03Z U3211150 3106672 2823473 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive vs Maladaptive Self-Reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress??}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 2pwv2x992q1s19d1bj44c3e3pmqi28n 2823481 2823473 2026-08-20T03:56:00Z U3211150 3106672 2823481 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive vs Maladaptive Self-Reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 7v38o1mwglxjda27ppa8zrada967oao 2823494 2823481 2026-08-20T04:21:26Z U3143751 3106785 Updated casing in title to align with casing in Motivation and emotion/Book/2026 2823494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] s5jw5wz56smvbdlhq6nvctleczqqdqm 2823510 2823494 2026-08-20T05:01:53Z U3211150 3106672 2823510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection:<br>When does self-reflection promote wellbeing and when does it contribute to psychological distress?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] os57e108lhhmftisvg1ec93ua6ynim9 0 331111 2823452 2821904 2026-08-20T03:31:56Z U3143751 3106785 Added link 2823452 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. Wróbel, M. Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. IJOMEH 26, 581–592 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Burnout]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 2996z1qs4h8uga9cb5skty1oqf1e1pm 2823458 2823452 2026-08-20T03:34:06Z U3143751 3106785 Included title and subtitle 2823458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy Fatigue and Emotional Exhaustion:<br>How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. Wróbel, M. Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. IJOMEH 26, 581–592 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Burnout]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] qi7id61zm44tqt088q3brl9gf8og061 2823516 2823458 2026-08-20T05:07:02Z U3211150 3106672 Edited title casing to match 2026 table of contents. 2823516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion:<br>How does sustained empathic engagement contribute to emotional exhaustion?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. Wróbel, M. Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. IJOMEH 26, 581–592 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Burnout]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] 391xt58l3rq4g4hma1fthimyenmyw3i 0 331115 2823445 2822949 2026-08-20T03:29:25Z Jack4234 3106762 2823445 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Scenario A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid. Neither future exists yet, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] Possible selves are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals. In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance? *How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit? *Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour? * How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. *Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? == Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit == *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ov3ruvap6rhl0o7tf651l3flmlf6rmi 2823451 2823445 2026-08-20T03:31:40Z Jack4234 3106762 2823451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Scenario A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid. Neither future exists yet, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals. In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance? *How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit? *Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour? * How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. *Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? == Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit == *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] etnr9lpvsx5vpp0u6n0gq04g5cparz5 2823461 2823451 2026-08-20T03:35:44Z Jack4234 3106762 2823461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Scenario A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid. Neither future exists, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals. In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance? *How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit? *Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour? * How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. *Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? == Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit == *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] rc7fmj35hh72pty1pqpftcdb0xgp6c3 2823488 2823461 2026-08-20T04:08:26Z Jack4234 3106762 2823488 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Scenario A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid. Neither future exists, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals. In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance? *How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit? *Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour? * How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. *Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? == Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit == *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. <div style="margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;"> Cross, S., & Markus, H. (2010). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34(4), 230–255. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277058 de Place, A.-L., & Brunot, S. (2019). Motivational and behavioral impact of possible selves: When specificity matters. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 329–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619864275 Frazier, L. D., Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (2021). The MAPS model of self-regulation: Integrating metacognition, agency, and possible selves. Metacognition and Learning, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Haskins, L. B., & vanDellen, M. R. (2019). Self‐regulation as relating to one’s ideal possible self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 Hoyle, R. H., & Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self-regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1673–1696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x Murru, E. C., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2010). Imagining the possibilities: The effects of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 32(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.4.537 Norman, C. C., & Aron, A. (2003). Aspects of possible self that predict motivation to achieve or avoid it. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00029-5 Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., & Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K., & Hart-Johnson, T. (2004). Possible selves as roadmaps. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(2), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00057-6 Oyserman, D., Destin, M., & Novin, S. (2014). The context-sensitive future self: Possible selves motivate in context, not otherwise. Self and Identity, 14(2), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733}} </div> {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ducuk0t1wsrdo36097pbcdhjve6d4fw 2823570 2823488 2026-08-20T07:04:22Z Jack4234 3106762 2823570 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Possible Selves and Goal Pursuit:<br>How do possible selves influence motivation and goal-directed behaviour?}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] ; Scenario A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid. Neither future exists, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow. {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals. In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' *What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance? *How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit? *Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour? * How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== [[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]] Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Possible selves == *what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing? *Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance *Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self *Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour. *Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. === 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins === *Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge *Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation *Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x === 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) === *Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success *Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy *Maybe discuss expected possible selves *Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span === 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === *Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives *Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance *Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 == Goal pursuit and self-regulation == *Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour *People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour *Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise === 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour === *Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint. *Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 *Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles. *Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training. === 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit === *Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 *Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment. *Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation? == Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit == *Center of the chapter *Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit *Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory *How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour *Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 === 3.1 modelling the relationships === *compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x *Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image) *Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour *Answer the question: how? === 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit === *Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 *Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 *Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ *Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733 === 3.3 when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) === *Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour *“Seeing the destination but not the path” *Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present == Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit == *Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour === 4.1 possible-self interventions === *Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 *Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes *Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe *This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question) === 4.2 possible selves to present action === *This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor. *Could use a learning feature *“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 == Extra sources: == *Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014) *Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020) *Identity-based motivation (2015) == Conclusion == *Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid. *Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes. *Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. Cross, S., & Markus, H. (2010). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34(4), 230–255. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277058 de Place, A.-L., & Brunot, S. (2019). Motivational and behavioral impact of possible selves: When specificity matters. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 329–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619864275 Frazier, L. D., Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (2021). The MAPS model of self-regulation: Integrating metacognition, agency, and possible selves. Metacognition and Learning, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 Haskins, L. B., & vanDellen, M. R. (2019). Self‐regulation as relating to one’s ideal possible self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499 Hoyle, R. H., & Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self-regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1673–1696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x Murru, E. C., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2010). Imagining the possibilities: The effects of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 32(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.4.537 Norman, C. C., & Aron, A. (2003). Aspects of possible self that predict motivation to achieve or avoid it. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00029-5 Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., & Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188 Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K., & Hart-Johnson, T. (2004). Possible selves as roadmaps. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(2), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00057-6 Oyserman, D., Destin, M., & Novin, S. (2014). The context-sensitive future self: Possible selves motivate in context, not otherwise. Self and Identity, 14(2), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733}} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] eh7jlb670gvj7dpfumywieui4f088oj 0 331132 2823320 2823093 2026-08-20T01:58:56Z Sienna33309 3106991 Added an image 2823320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . 1qvsqzthl84vbms9odic54s0v5kz33e 2823330 2823320 2026-08-20T02:04:59Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] - The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion - Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. - This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? - The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . ayvr1vbxn23vjwxiwg0gj5i4c1wrv0o 2823336 2823330 2026-08-20T02:08:11Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. - This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? - The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . 2z4x1ndrwlbpnxlkgc2vit0qfssrtqe 2823345 2823336 2026-08-20T02:14:17Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? - The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . 4tc69q6renc7ynq1u9lmlet4qvdiiad 2823348 2823345 2026-08-20T02:15:35Z U3275940 3106402 I added APA formatting to the Inside Out figure - including "Figure 1." in bolded text. 2823348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.'''Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? - The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . 0ut2d4ceoxad1br3kzrllr7h3ar9cg8 2823357 2823348 2026-08-20T02:17:51Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823357 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.'''Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . btbaz3wajja2jy9q3qy58kpg36cdvb7 2823370 2823357 2026-08-20T02:24:04Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1. '''Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . lteymwkpqsi0g3y44puk2vz87nfmz5n 2823378 2823370 2026-08-20T02:34:43Z Sienna33309 3106991 image size 2823378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|125px|thumb|'''Figure 1. '''Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's Inside Out. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . fpc83e7mh66lq46oingr2lp4pqfibil 2823586 2823378 2026-08-20T07:37:20Z Jack4234 3106762 2823586 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} ==Overview== [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|125px|thumb|'''Figure 1. '''Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's ''Inside Out''. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . pp3kphpsp36gvva7su580lod0fvsjda 2823587 2823586 2026-08-20T07:37:59Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823587 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Consumer emotion measurement:<br>How can consumer emotion be measured?}} ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} [[File:Inside-out-5492d0c4e3912.jpg|125px|thumb|'''Figure 1. '''Emotions represented in Riley's head.]] '''The Film "Inside Out" and the challenge of measuring emotion''' Imagine watching Pixar's ''Inside Out''. As Riley struggles to adjust to moving to a new city, viewers experience a range of emotions alongside her. Some audiences may feel sadness when Riley misses her old home, while others feel hope as she adapts to this change. Although everyone is watching the same film, their emotional experiences can differ substantially. This raises an important question for businesses and researchers alike: How can we actually know what consumers are feeling? - If a company wanted to evaluate audience reactions to Inside Out, would it rely on questionnaires asking viewers to self report, Should it analyse facial expressions, measure heart rate, or track physiological arousal? How do we approach the two viewers reporting differences in emotion despite watching the same film? The challenge is that emotions are not directly observable. Researchers can only infer emotional experiences through self-reports, behaviour, physiological responses and neurological activity. Understanding these emotions is important because emotional reactions influence consumer attitudes, product evaluations and overall purchasing decisions. Psychological research provides a range of methods for measuring consumer emotions, while also highlighting how individual differences can shape emotional responses # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box {{RoundBoxBottom}} Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is consumer emotion? * What methods are used to measure consumer emotion? * How do individual differences influence consumers' emotional responses and their measurement? * How can consumer emotion measurement and segmentation inform business decisions? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]] . 9n7uu67rl7bi6ug6fl04xlcw8npt27b 2 331145 2823454 2822055 2026-08-20T03:33:11Z Jack4234 3106762 2823454 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Jack Eager, I am a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=exact+match&utm_content=study+at+uc&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950742786&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqsV8IGOJfVzdTEgkOgcwiLLA&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology / Bachelor of Arts (specialising in Global Studies). I am contributing to Wikiversity as part of the [[Motivation and emotion]] course. My book chapter will explore the relationship between possible selves and goal pursuit, with the aim of answering the question: how do possible selves influence motivation and goal directed behaviour? == My Contributions == === Book chapter === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit]] === Social contributions === * * * iuixj11wetw5ajd6w0go8lwz94yabkd 2823580 2823454 2026-08-20T07:23:13Z Jack4234 3106762 2823580 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Jack Eager, I am a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=exact+match&utm_content=study+at+uc&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950742786&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqsV8IGOJfVzdTEgkOgcwiLLA&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology / Bachelor of Arts (specialising in Global Studies). I am contributing to Wikiversity as part of the [[Motivation and emotion]] course. My book chapter will explore the relationship between possible selves and goal pursuit, with the aim of answering the question: how do possible selves influence motivation and goal directed behaviour? == My Contributions == === Book chapter === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit]] === Social contributions === # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FRomantic_jealousy&diff=2823578&oldid=2823239 Fixed a title] # 357k9ycudipaav9mc44o6quefw0r73z 2823584 2823580 2026-08-20T07:26:40Z Jack4234 3106762 2823584 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Jack Eager, I am a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=exact+match&utm_content=study+at+uc&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950742786&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqsV8IGOJfVzdTEgkOgcwiLLA&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology / Bachelor of Arts (specialising in Global Studies). I am contributing to Wikiversity as part of the [[Motivation and emotion]] course. My book chapter will explore the relationship between possible selves and goal pursuit, with the aim of answering the question: how do possible selves influence motivation and goal directed behaviour? == My Contributions == === Book chapter === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit]] === Social contributions === # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FRomantic_jealousy&diff=2823578&oldid=2823239 Fixed a title] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOverconfidence_in_decision-making&diff=2823583&oldid=2823532 Fixed a title] bd6a0gm9rku67ghvjc3h2212xym0ei2 2823588 2823584 2026-08-20T07:40:32Z Jack4234 3106762 2823588 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Jack Eager, I am a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=exact+match&utm_content=study+at+uc&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950742786&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqsV8IGOJfVzdTEgkOgcwiLLA&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology / Bachelor of Arts (specialising in Global Studies). I am contributing to Wikiversity as part of the [[Motivation and emotion]] course. My book chapter will explore the relationship between possible selves and goal pursuit, with the aim of answering the question: how do possible selves influence motivation and goal directed behaviour? == My Contributions == === Book chapter === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit]] === Social contributions === # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FRomantic_jealousy&diff=2823578&oldid=2823239 Fixed a title] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FOverconfidence_in_decision-making&diff=2823583&oldid=2823532 Fixed a title] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FConsumer_emotion_measurement&diff=2823586&oldid=2823378 Grammar fix] 7mo6onuvye08039bbd7hynle9ujvkma 2823603 2823588 2026-08-20T08:34:28Z Jack4234 3106762 2823603 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Jack Eager, I am a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=exact+match&utm_content=study+at+uc&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950742786&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqsV8IGOJfVzdTEgkOgcwiLLA&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology / Bachelor of Arts (specialising in Global Studies). I am contributing to Wikiversity as part of the [[Motivation and emotion]] course. My book chapter will explore the relationship between possible selves and goal pursuit, with the aim of answering the question: how do possible selves influence motivation and goal directed behaviour? == My Contributions == === Book chapter === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit]] === Social contributions === # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FRomantic_jealousy&diff=2823578&oldid=2823239 Fixed a title] #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Exercise gamification motivation|Made a suggestion about literature in overview]] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Share about how I motivate myself] 6l21l7bd5oid6dltlni50p6ds3vb0vj 2823605 2823603 2026-08-20T08:36:20Z Jack4234 3106762 2823605 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Jack Eager, I am a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=exact+match&utm_content=study+at+uc&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950742786&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqsV8IGOJfVzdTEgkOgcwiLLA&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7gVrDcfqsFkI_krMN939VcOSlFRigCDj6-XAx5pB-s2FxjkFsBm65BoC0iQQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology / Bachelor of Arts (specialising in Global Studies). I am contributing to Wikiversity as part of the [[Motivation and emotion]] course. My book chapter will explore the relationship between possible selves and goal pursuit, with the aim of answering the question: how do possible selves influence motivation and goal directed behaviour? == My Contributions == === Book chapter === * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit]] === Social contributions === # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FRomantic_jealousy&diff=2823578&oldid=2823239 Fixed a title] #[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Exercise gamification motivation|Made a suggestion about literature in overview]] #[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Shared about how I motivate myself] b172sjulak2tq25g9ek9mqcoww4opfs 0 331149 2823233 2822241 2026-08-20T00:34:23Z U3254168 3106320 2823233 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] f6kczuxy7wfkc90cczjm00an9gm3osl 2823376 2823233 2026-08-20T02:32:46Z Jtneill 10242 /* References */ 2823376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] dnbolpau7rm6zdbxsn6peshgf3t7njz 2823524 2823376 2026-08-20T05:14:42Z U3254168 3106320 adding dot points to headings 2823524 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al., 2002 and Luginbuhl & Burkhad, 1995, victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot, 1999 and Kahhale et al., 2026, they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have == Emotional reasoning == ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] thm4320rdvapgp1ftevhmvock7ehk1y 2823528 2823524 2026-08-20T05:23:26Z U3254168 3106320 adding dot points to headings 2823528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the imapct of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 5e0to0bu8dtlq7gb1gwm7jik8iu7e3n 2823533 2823528 2026-08-20T05:36:54Z U3254168 3106320 adding dot points to headings 2823533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] f739xpax7yrtnx2ozuhpxd1srcna7ox 2823534 2823533 2026-08-20T05:41:47Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2823534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr https://doi.org/10.5093/ejpalc2014a5 }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] k1j78n8x6g5t6eozux1v1ohozpru17e 2823535 2823534 2026-08-20T05:44:43Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2823535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] hhiyfdhu20l555wirulxktufqqxfbrr 2823538 2823535 2026-08-20T05:48:16Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2823538 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 5dfnv92uyfcc5mt08qjqh6p6c9zmabu 2823541 2823538 2026-08-20T05:52:18Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2823541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] hg34fsdrkoagw0rw852qr12s6fx7zd3 2823544 2823541 2026-08-20T06:00:38Z U3254168 3106320 /* Learning features */ 2823544 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] o9ifib1672w7mgw5rp62ni0yqcgtdkx 2823546 2823544 2026-08-20T06:01:50Z U3254168 3106320 /* Learning features */ 2823546 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] m16fs2yq9hlv9z1geub5xloasonpihl 2823551 2823546 2026-08-20T06:05:04Z U3254168 3106320 2823551 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. {Individual differences do not influence empathy:|type="()"} - True + False ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 6ex1ekuxz4n20ypyz3ye2lj50wgkauu 2823553 2823551 2026-08-20T06:07:58Z U3254168 3106320 /* Empathy with victims */ 2823553 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral. * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 9v625kc0eow2ye1hhy7rtze3w663mri 2823555 2823553 2026-08-20T06:08:42Z U3254168 3106320 inserted image 2823555 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] krj25foi3crgt17v6waoonkcsjavtbo 2823559 2823555 2026-08-20T06:14:31Z U3254168 3106320 added imagine this 2823559 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only.]] The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] ebbjy6krmn2agxe0tg3j5teil6lukm5 2823563 2823559 2026-08-20T06:19:33Z U3254168 3106320 2823563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only.]] # # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help We have all watched or heard of jury trials, whether on the news, Netflix or otherwise. But how do jurors actually come to their decisions? What role does empathy play? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 1i4n4z96wgvkkof2ywhuhbkizmrmray 2823589 2823563 2026-08-20T07:48:57Z U3254168 3106320 /* References */ 2823589 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} <div align=center>Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only.]] # # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help We have all watched or heard of jury trials, whether on the news, Netflix or otherwise. But how do jurors actually come to their decisions? What role does empathy play? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] bs5a8zrkzm06ghp7fzvaatwiqhs4cuf 2823601 2823589 2026-08-20T08:33:46Z U3254168 3106320 introduction 2823601 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only]] # This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] qi560kvzgqysd0sw9pyfht3ggy958nr 2823606 2823601 2026-08-20T08:39:04Z U3254168 3106320 /* See also */ 2823606 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only]] # This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 5drx09gzd5u8naadwfxfn47otrfj57b 2823607 2823606 2026-08-20T08:43:19Z U3254168 3106320 /* External links */ 2823607 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:<br>How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}} [[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only]] # This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making? * How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making? * How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links == Empathy with victims == * Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl & Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers & Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing. * Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). * Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright & Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). == Empathy with defendants == * When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. * Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm & Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich & Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. * Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026). == Emotional reasoning == [[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]] * Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025). * Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). * Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display="simple"> {Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective: |type="()"} + True - False {Individual differences do not influence empathy: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284 Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf Haegerich, T. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294 Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., & Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231 Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., & Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559 Luginbuhl, J. & Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115 Myers, B., & Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05 Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733 Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., & Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965 Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145 Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&context=clr }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] 5h183wqrbm6g5fyeqdhpa5taijtuati 0 331168 2823132 2822968 2026-08-19T13:31:57Z U3279062 3106301 added dot points for why does romantic jealousy occur and perceived relationship threat 2823132 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) * add diagram (Figure 2.) relationship event - potential threat- appraisal (what does this mean for my relationship, individual and relationship factors)- perceived relationship threat- jealousy (emotional plus cognitive plus motivational responses)- possible responses (communication/ reassurance seeking / monitoring/ withdrawal/ confrontation) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . 1l3iz7jnmco65hg0dftpqnhqiwast5h 2823135 2823132 2026-08-19T13:51:22Z U3279062 3106301 added dot points for attachment and relationship security 2823135 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) * add diagram (Figure 2.) relationship event - potential threat- appraisal (what does this mean for my relationship, individual and relationship factors)- perceived relationship threat- jealousy (emotional plus cognitive plus motivational responses)- possible responses (communication/ reassurance seeking / monitoring/ withdrawal/ confrontation) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . ecc1i5cpctyvaue9b1gbxu9p09h4v16 2823136 2823135 2026-08-19T13:59:17Z U3279062 3106301 added dot point relationship context 2823136 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) * add diagram (Figure 2.) relationship event - potential threat- appraisal (what does this mean for my relationship, individual and relationship factors)- perceived relationship threat- jealousy (emotional plus cognitive plus motivational responses)- possible responses (communication/ reassurance seeking / monitoring/ withdrawal/ confrontation) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . nit2qa2eirar81ea3hxt5m5cru26f1l 2823139 2823136 2026-08-19T14:09:14Z U3279062 3106301 added dot points for intergrated explanations 2823139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual Differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted === Integrated Explanations === taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. * add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . pm3q2z4pr46fameqhnlzr7ic2qwk6qf 2823145 2823139 2026-08-19T14:14:21Z U3279062 3106301 added dot points learning feature after intergrated explanations 2823145 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual Differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted === Integrated Explanations === taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. * add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp) * add learning feature * feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries * quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . t3wupak2zea81sfqlj0mqangl9e861p 2823239 2823145 2026-08-20T01:14:38Z U3279062 3106301 added points for what are the impacts of romantic jealousy 2823239 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic Jealousy:<br>Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur, What Are it's Impacts, and How Can It Be Managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual Differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted === Integrated Explanations === taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. * add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp) * add learning feature * feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries * quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive Impacts === Romantic jealousy can alter attention, interpretation, and thinking about the relationship, particularly when individuals attempt to make sense of ambiguous or threatening information === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . ibrwyn9euc8bbq0c8m39443vjf2r50u 2823578 2823239 2026-08-20T07:19:20Z Jack4234 3106762 Typo Fix 2823578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual Differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted === Integrated Explanations === taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. * add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp) * add learning feature * feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries * quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive Impacts === Romantic jealousy can alter attention, interpretation, and thinking about the relationship, particularly when individuals attempt to make sense of ambiguous or threatening information === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . c6emmrepuy2bmamf49wmdnk3p1i1hsa 2823627 2823578 2026-08-20T10:46:31Z U3279062 3106301 added points to cognitive impacts 2823627 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Romantic jealousy:<br>Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]] ; Scenario Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways. Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy. She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening. Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.) What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations. * What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]? (Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu & Hasdağ, 2025) * Why does jealousy vary? (Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020) * Why does jealousy matter? (Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero & Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013) * Why management matters (Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.) Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth & Gross, 2020) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} '''Focus questions''' * What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response? * Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently? * What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy? * How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What Is Romantic Jealousy? == Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) * define more * jealousy isn't just a single feeling * introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently * preview sections === Defining Romantic Jealousy === Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship. * define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller & Benz, 2013) information on jealousy * talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001) * explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion) * add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) === Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences === Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. * say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person) * envy generally is (wanting something another person has) * jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy * can cite old jealousy source from above section {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences !Experience !Central Concern !Example |- |Romantic Jealousy |Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship |Partner appears unusually close to another person |- |Envy |Wanting something another person has |Another person has a relationship you want |- |Fear/Anxiety |Anticipated or perceived threat/danger |Worry that a relationship may end |} === Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful === experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. * emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) * potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013) * reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?: |type="()"} - It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. - It is the same as envy. + It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. - It always results in harmful behaviour. </quiz> == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. * talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? * introduce topics discussed below === Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal === A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. * A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) * talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009) * case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) === Attachment and Relationship Security === Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy * introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen & Kirkpatrick, 1997) again * attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell & Marshall, 2011) * avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990) * case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain. * uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001) * relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. * context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. * maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. === Individual Differences === beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. lightly talk about some or all (?) * self esteem * previous relationship experiences * rejection sensitivity * personality tendances * these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted === Integrated Explanations === taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause. * add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) * caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp) * add learning feature * feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries * quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself. * connect back to last section * say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome * consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses) * briefly overview subheadings (don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above ) === Cognitive Impacts === Romantic jealousy can alter attention, interpretation, and thinking about the relationship, particularly when individuals attempt to make sense of ambiguous or threatening information * cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) * jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction) * uncertainty can encourage rumination or information seeking * interpretations may become more negative * cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example: * Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended) * What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? == === Perceived Relationship Threat === === Cognitive Appraisal === === Attachment and Relationship Security === === Relationship Context and Uncertainty === === Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations === == What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? == === Cognitive Impacts === === Emotional Impacts === === Behavioural Responses === === Relationship Consequences === === When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? === == How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? == === Recognising the Emotional Response === === Evaluating the Perceived Threat === === Communication and Relationship Management === === Emotion Regulation === === When the Threat is Real === ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but: ** avoid having only one sub-heading ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * See also * References * External links ==Key points== For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading: * Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc. * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations * Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]] {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use to tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * The Conclusion is arguably the most important section * Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: ** Use "Edit source" ** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]] . jj9qkqlnooeydhojhr6w0n3eb5j7ump 2 331170 2823116 2822180 2026-08-19T12:42:42Z U3279062 3106301 added discussion links 2823116 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi, I am Kayla! I am a third-year psychology student completing a double degree in Psychology and Global Studies. I am interested in psychology because I enjoy learning about the world around me and the ways psychology can connect to and inform many different areas of study. I am particularly interested in communication, learning, and abnormal psychology, although I am curious about psychology as a whole and enjoy exploring the different areas it has to offer. As I continue through my degree, I am hoping to build on the knowledge and skills I have developed so far and become more confident in applying them. I am especially interested in developing my communication skills and learning how to connect and collaborate with others in the field. Research method and statistics have defiantly been challenging at times, my experiences with Jamovi were initially a little intimidating! but they have also encouraged me to step outside my comfort zone and continue to develop my research skills. I am still figuring out exactly what career path I would like to pursue. Studying Psychology alongside Global Studies has given me the opportunity to explore different perspectives and possibilities, but I know that I would like psychology to be part of my future career in some way. Outside of university, I enjoy reading, drawing and painting, and gaming. I would describe myself as curious and open-minded, and I like approaching psychology with a willingness to learn and consider different perspectives. I am also looking forward to the social side of learning. I am friendly and open to connecting with classmates, sharing ideas, and learning from other peoples experiences. I hope this Wikiversity space can be an opportunity not only to develop academically, but also to make connections with others who are interested in psychology and learning together. Thank you for visiting! == Book Chapter I'm Working On == Here is the link to the chapter I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic jealousy]] == Social Contributions and Discussions == Here are links to discussion posts I have created, or participated in: https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345?entry_id=806021 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=804351 5ik9p7cne1pcazzk1z5th2fx2j4zcri 2823626 2823116 2026-08-20T10:29:19Z U3279062 3106301 added discussion link 2823626 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi, I am Kayla! I am a third-year psychology student completing a double degree in Psychology and Global Studies. I am interested in psychology because I enjoy learning about the world around me and the ways psychology can connect to and inform many different areas of study. I am particularly interested in communication, learning, and abnormal psychology, although I am curious about psychology as a whole and enjoy exploring the different areas it has to offer. As I continue through my degree, I am hoping to build on the knowledge and skills I have developed so far and become more confident in applying them. I am especially interested in developing my communication skills and learning how to connect and collaborate with others in the field. Research method and statistics have defiantly been challenging at times, my experiences with Jamovi were initially a little intimidating! but they have also encouraged me to step outside my comfort zone and continue to develop my research skills. I am still figuring out exactly what career path I would like to pursue. Studying Psychology alongside Global Studies has given me the opportunity to explore different perspectives and possibilities, but I know that I would like psychology to be part of my future career in some way. Outside of university, I enjoy reading, drawing and painting, and gaming. I would describe myself as curious and open-minded, and I like approaching psychology with a willingness to learn and consider different perspectives. I am also looking forward to the social side of learning. I am friendly and open to connecting with classmates, sharing ideas, and learning from other peoples experiences. I hope this Wikiversity space can be an opportunity not only to develop academically, but also to make connections with others who are interested in psychology and learning together. Thank you for visiting! == Book Chapter I'm Working On == Here is the link to the chapter I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Romantic jealousy]] == Social Contributions and Discussions == Here are links to discussion posts I have created, or participated in: https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345?entry_id=806021 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=804351 https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456676 27lwkm1zhl0wa7nkd88770gegszz21x 0 331201 2823327 2822409 2026-08-20T02:02:02Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Created focus questions 2823327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is educational motivation? * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 89rvn5pkzpw9eccrwz57hh2rf8mil8v 2823380 2823327 2026-08-20T02:39:30Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Insert Figure 1. Image 2823380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is educational motivation? * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] i1b4r8vwnrktth006hjuvwwpds0u28k 2823407 2823380 2026-08-20T03:14:15Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Added overview scenario 2823407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is educational motivation? * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] gua87lvgyb785ofvpx1douaihxun5j7 2823503 2823407 2026-08-20T04:44:25Z StudentUC2026 3105303 added citation for figure 1 2823503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview to the q== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is educational motivation? * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 3z3re9fxb19cgwkrlztu3ka8pe0c59q 2823525 2823503 2026-08-20T05:16:27Z StudentUC2026 3105303 2823525 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview to the q== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 5573flclhart8ytaz722mmq6g7xpon7 2823536 2823525 2026-08-20T05:46:14Z StudentUC2026 3105303 created headings and sub headings for question 2 2823536 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 7jns7a2jmp7g0sabxaxow1v2d66ucq8 2823545 2823536 2026-08-20T06:01:07Z StudentUC2026 3105303 2823545 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] k94sunjb6k5luruqgd874sjjwmycb2k 2823547 2823545 2026-08-20T06:02:05Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* References */ 2823547 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 {{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] okbrlxhjojlsptl6est8vi75k85wij5 2823548 2823547 2026-08-20T06:02:27Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* References */ 2823548 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] h97hgjwln3shhcyfzhhamk4oehq3aiw 2823550 2823548 2026-08-20T06:03:57Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* References */ 2823550 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 7wrw1su5w8qr9hh67nwb3qevbgnt7d1 2823556 2823550 2026-08-20T06:09:06Z StudentUC2026 3105303 2823556 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] cq6r2964dkl69948rgzv7va2s9znyru 2823557 2823556 2026-08-20T06:09:57Z StudentUC2026 3105303 2823557 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] bunw8go2l1gp43tsutwlh8kqulk5wev 2823558 2823557 2026-08-20T06:11:55Z StudentUC2026 3105303 2823558 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] pd460ndqadg3zhvsn1eq9370eg4fz1q 2823560 2823558 2026-08-20T06:16:04Z StudentUC2026 3105303 Fixed Focus question box, worked out how to remove the cross and the tick using source code edit 2823560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is expectancy-value theory? == === Sub-heading 1 === ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] lekpn6jjduw7aztxkqtzq6zb9cz0odp 2823567 2823560 2026-08-20T06:38:05Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* What is expectancy-value theory? */ 2823567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:<br>What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]] ; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners. You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin. After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz. Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both. This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is expectancy-value theory? * How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation? * How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? * How do task values influence educational motivation? * How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Expectancy-value theory == No sub heading here just discription ==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?== === Expectancy Beliefs === * First dot point * second dot point * third dot point === Task Value === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Goal Orientations === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Interest === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point === Self-Concept and Identity === * First dot point * Second dot point * Third dot point == How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? == === Sub-heading 1 === == How do task values influence educational motivation? == === Subheading 1 === == How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? == === Sub-heading 1 === == Headings == === Use this heading structure: === * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg Wigfield, A., & Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }} Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]] 1o80mew0pvkg8z72xrk4zsghswb1l26 2 331202 2823244 2822389 2026-08-20T01:33:54Z StudentUC2026 3105303 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ Fixed the page link 2823244 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] and studying for an undergraduate degree in psychology. [[File:272-foto-de-snowboard.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bluebird%20day?utm_source=copilot.com Bluebird day] at the snow]] Hobbies: * Gaming * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * Exploring new places Pets: * Dog * Goldfish x2 == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy value theory of educational motivation]] == Social contributions == # Make a direct edit to another page to improve it # Make a comment on a page with some feedback # Post to the UCLearn forum 4w72nb7ual1pwxwy5nnqwgf8di5rxjs 0 331204 2823459 2822460 2026-08-20T03:34:14Z U3286962 3106989 add title 2823459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Life purpose and well being:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Meaning]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]] 3mc1v4pgbkgm5qluhryjt0nzegluplf 0 331213 2823497 2822677 2026-08-20T04:29:38Z U3260591 3104152 /* Psychological Mechanisms of Gamification */ 2823497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Exercise gamification motivation:<br>How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:WORKOUT.jpg|thumb|Man earning points for exercising]] '''Case study: A little more motivation''' Alex has recently started using a fitness app to become more physically active. The app awards points for completing workouts, gives badges for reaching milestones, displays weekly challenges, and allows users to compare their progress with friends (see figure 1). At first, Alex exercises mainly to improve their health, but soon becomes motivated by earning enough points to reach the next level. When Alex moves up the leaderboard, they feel a sense of achievement and become more motivated to exercise again. However, after falling behind other users, Alex begins to lose interest and considers stopping. Alex's experience raises an important question: why can the same gamification features that motivate exercise for some people have different effects on motivation and behaviour for others? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Regular physical activity provides important physical and psychological benefits, yet maintaining exercise behaviour can be difficult. Digital fitness technologies increasingly use gamification, such as points, rewards, challenges, feedback and social comparison, to encourage people to become more active. Gamification may make exercise more engaging and provide users with goals and feedback, but its effects on motivation and behaviour are not necessarily straightforward. Psychological science can help explain why gamification may influence exercise motivation and whether increased motivation translates into sustained exercise behaviour. Understanding theories of motivation can also help identify when gamification is likely to support engagement and when it may instead reduce motivation or discourage participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' #What is exercise gamification and how is it used to influence motivation? #What psychological mechanisms explain how gamification can affect exercise motivation? #How does gamification influence actual exercise behaviour and adherence? #When might gamification support or undermine exercise motivation? #How can gamification be designed to encourage sustainable exercise behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding Exercise Gamification == === Key points === * '''Gamification involves incorporating game-design elements into non-game contexts''', such as fitness apps and physical-activity programs, rather than turning exercise itself into a complete game (Krath et al., 2021). * Common exercise gamification features include '''points, badges, rewards, challenges, progress tracking, feedback and leaderboards''', which can provide users with goals and information about their progress (Shameli et al., 2017). * Gamification is increasingly used in digital physical-activity interventions, although research indicates that the effectiveness of different game elements can vary across interventions and populations (Wang et al., 2025). * Gamification can be understood as a potential '''behaviour-change strategy''', making it important to examine the psychological mechanisms through which game elements may influence motivation and exercise behaviour (Mazeas et al., 2022). == Psychological Mechanisms of Gamification == * '''Self-Determination Theory (SDT)''' proposes that motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness; different forms of motivation range from autonomous/intrinsic motivation to controlled/extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). * Gamification features such as '''progress feedback, achievable challenges and goals''' may support feelings of competence by helping users recognise improvement and successful performance. * Social features such as '''leaderboards, competition and shared challenges''' may influence relatedness and social comparison, although their effects may depend on the individual and how the feature is designed (Karabiber & Gürol, 2026). * External rewards and points may encourage behaviour, but gamification should not be assumed to automatically produce autonomous motivation; the psychological quality of the motivation matters. * Research applying SDT to physical activity generally finds positive relationships between more self-determined forms of motivation and physical activity, while controlled motivation and amotivation show weaker or negative relationships (Teixeira et al., 2012). == Gamification and Exercise Behaviour == == Designing Effective and Sustainable Exercise Gamification == ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Krath, J., Schürmann, L., & Von Korflesch, H. F. (2021). Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963 Shameli, A., Althoff, T., Saberi, A., & Leskovec, J. (2017). How Gamification Affects Physical Activity. Proc Int World Wide Web Conf, 2017, 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1145/3041021.3054172 Wang, M., Xu, J., Zhou, X., Li, X., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Effectiveness of Gamification Interventions to Improve Physical activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 13, e68151. https://doi.org/10.2196/68151 Mazeas, A., Duclos, M., Pereira, B., & Chalabaev, A. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of gamification on physical activity: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(1), e26779. https://doi.org/10.2196/26779 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Karabiber, H., & Gürol, Y. D. (2026). Feedback, competition, and cooperation: Behavioral effects of gamification elements in individual and team settings. Acta Psychologica, 266, 106908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106908 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gamification]] 2ikwnsrzwooz4b991mt4b15zcscumvx 2823502 2823497 2026-08-20T04:41:31Z U3260591 3104152 /* Gamification and Exercise Behaviour */ 2823502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Exercise gamification motivation:<br>How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:WORKOUT.jpg|thumb|Man earning points for exercising]] '''Case study: A little more motivation''' Alex has recently started using a fitness app to become more physically active. The app awards points for completing workouts, gives badges for reaching milestones, displays weekly challenges, and allows users to compare their progress with friends (see figure 1). At first, Alex exercises mainly to improve their health, but soon becomes motivated by earning enough points to reach the next level. When Alex moves up the leaderboard, they feel a sense of achievement and become more motivated to exercise again. However, after falling behind other users, Alex begins to lose interest and considers stopping. Alex's experience raises an important question: why can the same gamification features that motivate exercise for some people have different effects on motivation and behaviour for others? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Regular physical activity provides important physical and psychological benefits, yet maintaining exercise behaviour can be difficult. Digital fitness technologies increasingly use gamification, such as points, rewards, challenges, feedback and social comparison, to encourage people to become more active. Gamification may make exercise more engaging and provide users with goals and feedback, but its effects on motivation and behaviour are not necessarily straightforward. Psychological science can help explain why gamification may influence exercise motivation and whether increased motivation translates into sustained exercise behaviour. Understanding theories of motivation can also help identify when gamification is likely to support engagement and when it may instead reduce motivation or discourage participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' #What is exercise gamification and how is it used to influence motivation? #What psychological mechanisms explain how gamification can affect exercise motivation? #How does gamification influence actual exercise behaviour and adherence? #When might gamification support or undermine exercise motivation? #How can gamification be designed to encourage sustainable exercise behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding Exercise Gamification == * Gamification involves incorporating game-design elements into non-game contexts, such as fitness apps and physical-activity programs, rather than turning exercise itself into a complete game (Krath et al., 2021). * Common exercise gamification features include points, badges, rewards, challenges, progress tracking, feedback and leaderboards, which can provide users with goals and information about their progress (Shameli et al., 2017). * Gamification is increasingly used in digital physical-activity interventions, although research indicates that the effectiveness of different game elements can vary across interventions and populations (Wang et al., 2025). * Gamification can be understood as a potential behaviour-change strategy, making it important to examine the psychological mechanisms through which game elements may influence motivation and exercise behaviour (Mazeas et al., 2022). == Psychological Mechanisms of Gamification == * Self-Determination Theory (SDT) proposes that motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness. Different forms of motivation range from autonomous/intrinsic motivation to controlled/extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). * Gamification features such as progress feedback, achievable challenges and goals may support feelings of competence by helping users recognise improvement and successful performance. * Social features such as leaderboards, competition and shared challenges may influence relatedness and social comparison, although their effects may depend on the individual and how the feature is designed (Karabiber & Gürol, 2026). * External rewards and points may encourage behaviour, but gamification should not be assumed to automatically produce autonomous motivation; the psychological quality of the motivation matters. * Research applying SDT to physical activity generally finds positive relationships between more self-determined forms of motivation and physical activity, while controlled motivation and amotivation show weaker or negative relationships (Teixeira et al., 2012). == Gamification and Exercise Behaviour == * Increased motivation does not necessarily mean that a person will maintain exercise behaviour, so research needs to distinguish between motivation, engagement and actual physical activity. * A systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 randomised controlled trials involving 2,407 participants found that gamified interventions had a small-to-medium positive effect on physical activity, although the effect was weaker at longer-term follow-up (Mazeas et al., 2021). * Research on gamified smartphone applications similarly indicates small-to-moderate improvements in physical activity but the large variation between studies suggests that the effectiveness of gamification depends partly on how interventions are designed (Yang et al., 2021). * Long-term exercise adherence should therefore be considered separately from short-term increases in engagement, especially because gamification effects may become smaller over time. == Designing Effective and Sustainable Exercise Gamification == ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Krath, J., Schürmann, L., & Von Korflesch, H. F. (2021). Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963 Shameli, A., Althoff, T., Saberi, A., & Leskovec, J. (2017). How Gamification Affects Physical Activity. Proc Int World Wide Web Conf, 2017, 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1145/3041021.3054172 Wang, M., Xu, J., Zhou, X., Li, X., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Effectiveness of Gamification Interventions to Improve Physical activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 13, e68151. https://doi.org/10.2196/68151 Mazeas, A., Duclos, M., Pereira, B., & Chalabaev, A. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of gamification on physical activity: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(1), e26779. https://doi.org/10.2196/26779 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Karabiber, H., & Gürol, Y. D. (2026). Feedback, competition, and cooperation: Behavioral effects of gamification elements in individual and team settings. Acta Psychologica, 266, 106908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106908 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 Yang, Y., Hu, H., & Koenigstorfer, J. (2021). Effects of Gamified Smartphone Applications on Physical Activity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 62(4), 602–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.10.005 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gamification]] q8utum2prybvoaop2sai01px8l20ftz 2823511 2823502 2026-08-20T05:02:22Z U3260591 3104152 /* Designing Effective and Sustainable Exercise Gamification */ 2823511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Exercise gamification motivation:<br>How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:WORKOUT.jpg|thumb|Man earning points for exercising]] '''Case study: A little more motivation''' Alex has recently started using a fitness app to become more physically active. The app awards points for completing workouts, gives badges for reaching milestones, displays weekly challenges, and allows users to compare their progress with friends (see figure 1). At first, Alex exercises mainly to improve their health, but soon becomes motivated by earning enough points to reach the next level. When Alex moves up the leaderboard, they feel a sense of achievement and become more motivated to exercise again. However, after falling behind other users, Alex begins to lose interest and considers stopping. Alex's experience raises an important question: why can the same gamification features that motivate exercise for some people have different effects on motivation and behaviour for others? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Regular physical activity provides important physical and psychological benefits, yet maintaining exercise behaviour can be difficult. Digital fitness technologies increasingly use gamification, such as points, rewards, challenges, feedback and social comparison, to encourage people to become more active. Gamification may make exercise more engaging and provide users with goals and feedback, but its effects on motivation and behaviour are not necessarily straightforward. Psychological science can help explain why gamification may influence exercise motivation and whether increased motivation translates into sustained exercise behaviour. Understanding theories of motivation can also help identify when gamification is likely to support engagement and when it may instead reduce motivation or discourage participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' #What is exercise gamification and how is it used to influence motivation? #What psychological mechanisms explain how gamification can affect exercise motivation? #How does gamification influence actual exercise behaviour and adherence? #When might gamification support or undermine exercise motivation? #How can gamification be designed to encourage sustainable exercise behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding Exercise Gamification == * Gamification involves incorporating game-design elements into non-game contexts, such as fitness apps and physical-activity programs, rather than turning exercise itself into a complete game (Krath et al., 2021). * Common exercise gamification features include points, badges, rewards, challenges, progress tracking, feedback and leaderboards, which can provide users with goals and information about their progress (Shameli et al., 2017). * Gamification is increasingly used in digital physical-activity interventions, although research indicates that the effectiveness of different game elements can vary across interventions and populations (Wang et al., 2025). * Gamification can be understood as a potential behaviour-change strategy, making it important to examine the psychological mechanisms through which game elements may influence motivation and exercise behaviour (Mazeas et al., 2022). == Psychological Mechanisms of Gamification == * Self-Determination Theory (SDT) proposes that motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness. Different forms of motivation range from autonomous/intrinsic motivation to controlled/extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). * Gamification features such as progress feedback, achievable challenges and goals may support feelings of competence by helping users recognise improvement and successful performance. * Social features such as leaderboards, competition and shared challenges may influence relatedness and social comparison, although their effects may depend on the individual and how the feature is designed (Karabiber & Gürol, 2026). * External rewards and points may encourage behaviour, but gamification should not be assumed to automatically produce autonomous motivation; the psychological quality of the motivation matters. * Research applying SDT to physical activity generally finds positive relationships between more self-determined forms of motivation and physical activity, while controlled motivation and amotivation show weaker or negative relationships (Teixeira et al., 2012). == Gamification and Exercise Behaviour == * Increased motivation does not necessarily mean that a person will maintain exercise behaviour, so research needs to distinguish between motivation, engagement and actual physical activity. * A systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 randomised controlled trials involving 2,407 participants found that gamified interventions had a small-to-medium positive effect on physical activity, although the effect was weaker at longer-term follow-up (Mazeas et al., 2021). * Research on gamified smartphone applications similarly indicates small-to-moderate improvements in physical activity but the large variation between studies suggests that the effectiveness of gamification depends partly on how interventions are designed (Yang et al., 2021). * Long-term exercise adherence should therefore be considered separately from short-term increases in engagement, especially because gamification effects may become smaller over time. == Designing Effective and Sustainable Exercise Gamification == * Effective gamification should be based on psychological principles and behaviour-change evidence, rather than simply adding game elements such as points or badges. * Features that provide meaningful goals, feedback and opportunities for progress may help support motivation, particularly when they encourage feelings of competence and autonomy (Krath et al., 2021). * Competitive features such as leaderboards may motivate some users but could discourage others, highlighting the importance of individual differences and the way gamification features are implemented. * Gamification should aim to support sustained exercise behaviour, rather than relying only on novelty, rewards or short-term engagement. * Future exercise-gamification interventions should investigate which combinations of game elements are most effective for the majority of people as current research shows considerable variation between interventions (Xu et al., 2022). ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Krath, J., Schürmann, L., & Von Korflesch, H. F. (2021). Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963 Shameli, A., Althoff, T., Saberi, A., & Leskovec, J. (2017). How Gamification Affects Physical Activity. Proc Int World Wide Web Conf, 2017, 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1145/3041021.3054172 Wang, M., Xu, J., Zhou, X., Li, X., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Effectiveness of Gamification Interventions to Improve Physical activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 13, e68151. https://doi.org/10.2196/68151 Mazeas, A., Duclos, M., Pereira, B., & Chalabaev, A. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of gamification on physical activity: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(1), e26779. https://doi.org/10.2196/26779 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Karabiber, H., & Gürol, Y. D. (2026). Feedback, competition, and cooperation: Behavioral effects of gamification elements in individual and team settings. Acta Psychologica, 266, 106908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106908 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 Yang, Y., Hu, H., & Koenigstorfer, J. (2021). Effects of Gamified Smartphone Applications on Physical Activity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 62(4), 602–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.10.005 Xu, L., Shi, H., Shen, M., Ni, Y., Zhang, X., Pang, Y., Yu, T., Lian, X., Yu, T., Yang, X., & Li, F. (2022). The Effects of MHealth-Based Gamification Interventions on Participation in Physical Activity: Systematic review. JMIR Mhealth and Uhealth, 10(2), e27794. https://doi.org/10.2196/27794 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gamification]] mrikcmf0ck9durhamche83bcqwj65c3 2823515 2823511 2026-08-20T05:06:32Z U3260591 3104152 /* Conclusion */ 2823515 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Exercise gamification motivation:<br>How can gamification affect exercise motivation and behaviour?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} [[File:WORKOUT.jpg|thumb|Man earning points for exercising]] '''Case study: A little more motivation''' Alex has recently started using a fitness app to become more physically active. The app awards points for completing workouts, gives badges for reaching milestones, displays weekly challenges, and allows users to compare their progress with friends (see figure 1). At first, Alex exercises mainly to improve their health, but soon becomes motivated by earning enough points to reach the next level. When Alex moves up the leaderboard, they feel a sense of achievement and become more motivated to exercise again. However, after falling behind other users, Alex begins to lose interest and considers stopping. Alex's experience raises an important question: why can the same gamification features that motivate exercise for some people have different effects on motivation and behaviour for others? {{RoundBoxBottom}} Regular physical activity provides important physical and psychological benefits, yet maintaining exercise behaviour can be difficult. Digital fitness technologies increasingly use gamification, such as points, rewards, challenges, feedback and social comparison, to encourage people to become more active. Gamification may make exercise more engaging and provide users with goals and feedback, but its effects on motivation and behaviour are not necessarily straightforward. Psychological science can help explain why gamification may influence exercise motivation and whether increased motivation translates into sustained exercise behaviour. Understanding theories of motivation can also help identify when gamification is likely to support engagement and when it may instead reduce motivation or discourage participation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' #What is exercise gamification and how is it used to influence motivation? #What psychological mechanisms explain how gamification can affect exercise motivation? #How does gamification influence actual exercise behaviour and adherence? #When might gamification support or undermine exercise motivation? #How can gamification be designed to encourage sustainable exercise behaviour? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Understanding Exercise Gamification == * Gamification involves incorporating game-design elements into non-game contexts, such as fitness apps and physical-activity programs, rather than turning exercise itself into a complete game (Krath et al., 2021). * Common exercise gamification features include points, badges, rewards, challenges, progress tracking, feedback and leaderboards, which can provide users with goals and information about their progress (Shameli et al., 2017). * Gamification is increasingly used in digital physical-activity interventions, although research indicates that the effectiveness of different game elements can vary across interventions and populations (Wang et al., 2025). * Gamification can be understood as a potential behaviour-change strategy, making it important to examine the psychological mechanisms through which game elements may influence motivation and exercise behaviour (Mazeas et al., 2022). == Psychological Mechanisms of Gamification == * Self-Determination Theory (SDT) proposes that motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness. Different forms of motivation range from autonomous/intrinsic motivation to controlled/extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2020). * Gamification features such as progress feedback, achievable challenges and goals may support feelings of competence by helping users recognise improvement and successful performance. * Social features such as leaderboards, competition and shared challenges may influence relatedness and social comparison, although their effects may depend on the individual and how the feature is designed (Karabiber & Gürol, 2026). * External rewards and points may encourage behaviour, but gamification should not be assumed to automatically produce autonomous motivation; the psychological quality of the motivation matters. * Research applying SDT to physical activity generally finds positive relationships between more self-determined forms of motivation and physical activity, while controlled motivation and amotivation show weaker or negative relationships (Teixeira et al., 2012). == Gamification and Exercise Behaviour == * Increased motivation does not necessarily mean that a person will maintain exercise behaviour, so research needs to distinguish between motivation, engagement and actual physical activity. * A systematic review and meta-analysis of 16 randomised controlled trials involving 2,407 participants found that gamified interventions had a small-to-medium positive effect on physical activity, although the effect was weaker at longer-term follow-up (Mazeas et al., 2021). * Research on gamified smartphone applications similarly indicates small-to-moderate improvements in physical activity but the large variation between studies suggests that the effectiveness of gamification depends partly on how interventions are designed (Yang et al., 2021). * Long-term exercise adherence should therefore be considered separately from short-term increases in engagement, especially because gamification effects may become smaller over time. == Designing Effective and Sustainable Exercise Gamification == * Effective gamification should be based on psychological principles and behaviour-change evidence, rather than simply adding game elements such as points or badges. * Features that provide meaningful goals, feedback and opportunities for progress may help support motivation, particularly when they encourage feelings of competence and autonomy (Krath et al., 2021). * Competitive features such as leaderboards may motivate some users but could discourage others, highlighting the importance of individual differences and the way gamification features are implemented. * Gamification should aim to support sustained exercise behaviour, rather than relying only on novelty, rewards or short-term engagement. * Future exercise-gamification interventions should investigate which combinations of game elements are most effective for the majority of people as current research shows considerable variation between interventions (Xu et al., 2022). ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Gamification can influence exercise motivation by incorporating game elements that provide goals, feedback, rewards, progress and social interaction. * Psychological theories, especially Self-Determination Theory, can help explain why gamification may strengthen or weaken motivation depending on how game elements affect psychological needs and forms of motivation. * Research suggests that gamification can increase physical activity, but effects vary and may become smaller over time, meaning sustainable exercise behaviour should remain a key consideration. * The chapter will conclude that effective exercise gamification should be psychologically informed and designed to support meaningful, sustainable motivation rather than relying solely on external rewards. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Krath, J., Schürmann, L., & Von Korflesch, H. F. (2021). Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963 Shameli, A., Althoff, T., Saberi, A., & Leskovec, J. (2017). How Gamification Affects Physical Activity. Proc Int World Wide Web Conf, 2017, 455–463. https://doi.org/10.1145/3041021.3054172 Wang, M., Xu, J., Zhou, X., Li, X., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Effectiveness of Gamification Interventions to Improve Physical activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR Serious Games, 13, e68151. https://doi.org/10.2196/68151 Mazeas, A., Duclos, M., Pereira, B., & Chalabaev, A. (2021). Evaluating the effectiveness of gamification on physical activity: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(1), e26779. https://doi.org/10.2196/26779 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860 Karabiber, H., & Gürol, Y. D. (2026). Feedback, competition, and cooperation: Behavioral effects of gamification elements in individual and team settings. Acta Psychologica, 266, 106908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106908 Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 Yang, Y., Hu, H., & Koenigstorfer, J. (2021). Effects of Gamified Smartphone Applications on Physical Activity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 62(4), 602–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2021.10.005 Xu, L., Shi, H., Shen, M., Ni, Y., Zhang, X., Pang, Y., Yu, T., Lian, X., Yu, T., Yang, X., & Li, F. (2022). The Effects of MHealth-Based Gamification Interventions on Participation in Physical Activity: Systematic review. JMIR Mhealth and Uhealth, 10(2), e27794. https://doi.org/10.2196/27794 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gamification]] iwto4tyvf2dzve7hc3o02yuc7bui2xl 2 331217 2823249 2822532 2026-08-20T01:39:26Z JessJ117 3106965 2823249 wikitext text/x-wiki About Me: Hey, my name is Jessica Jefferies (She/Her). I am a 3rd-year Psychology student at the University of Canberra. I'm using this platform for an assessment for the unit Motivation and Emotion (7124). Over the next semester, I will be developing and publishing a book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation]]. The social contributions of this include..... Online platforms: * Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessica-jefferies-406787227/#:~:text=www.linkedin.com/in/jessica%2Djefferies%2D406787227 q9n1su0wognur4lx1nkdv9ba5vv3cz3 2823254 2823249 2026-08-20T01:41:04Z JessJ117 3106965 2823254 wikitext text/x-wiki About Me: Hey, my name is Jessica Jefferies ''(She/Her)''. I am a 3rd-year Psychology student at the University of Canberra. I'm using this platform for an assessment for the unit Motivation and Emotion (7124). Over the next semester, I will be developing and publishing a book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation]]. The social contributions of this include..... Online platforms: * Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessica-jefferies-406787227/#:~:text=www.linkedin.com/in/jessica%2Djefferies%2D406787227 8dxmvolczykycca9ata1tcscta80klt 2823335 2823254 2026-08-20T02:07:56Z JessJ117 3106965 2823335 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me: == Hey, my name is Jessica Jefferies ''(She/Her)''. I am a 3rd-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. [[File:Beach, New Brighton, New Zealand 06.jpg|thumb|Beach in New Brighton, New Zealand.]] Some of my interests include: * Travelling (Mainly to the beach). * Reading; some of my favourite authors include: ** [https://stephenking.com/index.html Steven King.] ** [https://www.kathleenglasgowbooks.com/ Kathleen Glasgow] * Playing with my cats (Ember and Ash). I'm using this platform for an assessment for the unit Motivation and Emotion (7124). Over the next semester, I will be developing and publishing a book chapter. == Book Chapter I'm working on: == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Alcohol use for emotion regulation|Alcohol use for emotion regulation]] == Social contributions: == == Online platforms: == * Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessica-jefferies-406787227/#:~:text=www.linkedin.com/in/jessica%2Djefferies%2D406787227 pk0qmcgslnu6o2nh67lxpp23k26icey 2 331218 2823222 2823044 2026-08-19T22:12:54Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Updated social contributions. 2823222 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs. == Book Chapter == I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] This is an individual student contribution as part of a larger class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. == Social Contributions == # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&diff=2822629&oldid=2763661 # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&diff=2822636&oldid=2812805 # '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&diff=2822844&oldid=2814898 # '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim<nowiki/>ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]] qdotfxqdytrib17qmj9tjvtvb2yccf8 2823293 2823222 2026-08-20T01:50:25Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Social Contributions */ 2823293 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs. == Book Chapter == I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] This is an individual student contribution as part of a larger class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. == Social Contributions == # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&diff=2822629&oldid=2763661 # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&diff=2822636&oldid=2812805 # '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&diff=2822844&oldid=2814898 # '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim<nowiki/>ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]] # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]] ky8cus1dw8kfmq1fr4spjff5npz1li7 2823339 2823293 2026-08-20T02:10:02Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Minor updates to book chapter to include picture and to acknowledge Dr Neill's long term book stewardship since 2010. 2823339 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs. == Book Chapter == [[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 1.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]] I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives. The book editor and University psychology unit convenor is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]] == Social Contributions == # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&diff=2822629&oldid=2763661 # '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&diff=2822636&oldid=2812805 # '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at<nowiki/>https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&diff=2822844&oldid=2814898 # '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim<nowiki/>ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]] # '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f<nowiki/>or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]] 41t0cudevpmg733qg0jki3qinppbn0p 2 331219 2823225 2822746 2026-08-19T23:21:59Z Amyuniversity 3106627 title change 2823225 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Topic Development and Book Chapter]] {{title|Body neutrality and emotional well-being - How does a body-neutral perspective affect emotional well-being?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] o9uijre0xqpdt35czesyuy4csjqwpr6 2823363 2823225 2026-08-20T02:20:40Z Amyuniversity 3106627 Replaced content with "[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Topic Development and Book Chapter]]" 2823363 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Topic Development and Book Chapter]] 4122f34k4i8nzb4dm2yd4mje4d162ut 2 331235 2823392 2822624 2026-08-20T03:10:03Z U3283302 3106299 2823392 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi there! I am a third year undergraduate psychology student at the University of Canberra. I am currently partaking in the unit Motivation and Emotion, check out my emotion book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?]] le4gmc9o3b49h7lrqexyvz4auixf1de 2823402 2823392 2026-08-20T03:12:50Z U3283302 3106299 2823402 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi there! I am a third year undergraduate psychology student at the University of Canberra. I am currently partaking in the unit Motivation and Emotion, check out my emotion book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?]] hdmrgvbow8zslyplhyvlpqvmfxbjaf2 2823414 2823402 2026-08-20T03:17:08Z U3283302 3106299 2823414 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi there! I am a third year undergraduate psychology student at the University of Canberra, I am currently partaking in the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion.]] == Book Chapter == Check out my emotion book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?]] == Social contributions == npnqfd4hp4vgm2sj90jgybln81kg62k 2823422 2823414 2026-08-20T03:19:23Z U3283302 3106299 2823422 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi there! I am a third year undergraduate psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], I am currently partaking in the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion.]] == Book Chapter == Check out my emotion book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?]] == Social contributions == fjt3fzqlc3c1ijoggb4zftkyd7twelw 2823442 2823422 2026-08-20T03:29:21Z U3283302 3106299 added image 2823442 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi there! [[File:Psychology.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Psychology buzz words]] I am a third year undergraduate psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], I am currently partaking in the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion.]] == Book Chapter == Check out my emotion book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?]] == Social contributions == b2oslutz24kixmi9hxn776h5t5djo1b 2823456 2823442 2026-08-20T03:33:59Z U3283302 3106299 2823456 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi there! [[File:Psychology.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Psychology buzz words]] I am a third year undergraduate psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], I am currently partaking in the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion.]] == Book Chapter == Check out my emotion book chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy|Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships?]] == Social Contributions == * 1 * 2 * 3 758n8bxtb7dco1yzfaf9kyvy71s4zy9 2 331236 2823102 2823101 2026-08-19T12:05:02Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Overview */ 2823102 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or remain may calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences == Social contributions == brtjacbzvtguf4togmy0p3snw3xhj8e 2823117 2823102 2026-08-19T12:44:14Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Overview */ + 2823117 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or remain may calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Explanation of the topic ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly explained.''' * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' * '''Context also appears to matter.''' == Social contributions == 6p9v9eq3tnd964fuobljl4kgqad5vb0 2823120 2823117 2026-08-19T12:56:26Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Overview */ ++ 2823120 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Explanation of the topic ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It does not simply refer to physical activity or time spent outside. Outdoor environment can include natural elements, fixed structures, loose materials and different amount of available space, creating various opportunities for children to play (Pereira et al., 2024). '''Figure 1''' provides an example of children engaging in outdoor environment during their play. * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly explained.''' * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' * '''Context also appears to matter.''' == Social contributions == dg1by14es908kk7euut1njrtp0sloh1 2823466 2823120 2026-08-20T03:41:22Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Overview */ 2823466 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Explanation of the topic ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It does not simply refer to physical activity or time spent outside. Outdoor environment can include natural elements, fixed structures, loose materials and different amount of available space, creating various opportunities for children to play (Pereira et al., 2024). '''Figure 1''' provides an example of children engaging in outdoor environment during their play. * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly explained.''' * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' * '''Context also appears to matter.''' == Social contributions == r80c5j5fj3jkftif7s42hfc64l5kojh 2823505 2823466 2026-08-20T04:49:45Z Mymunu 3106327 /* About me */ 2823505 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Social contributions == 21gl4no5vomw2is5rf59tyn6a9jbwuw 2823509 2823505 2026-08-20T05:01:47Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Social contributions */ 2823509 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? == Social contributions == m1kdx93hs1l148wbq9t0sek9u244quu 2823512 2823509 2026-08-20T05:03:05Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Focus question */ 2823512 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == * What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? == Social contributions == clmekboovhwyx9jhzmm2i28yazg3oou 2823514 2823512 2026-08-20T05:05:52Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Focus question */ 2823514 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == * What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?<br /> == Social contributions == sq7spqb11epghyhlhohe161k2f7t9pm 2823517 2823514 2026-08-20T05:08:06Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Social contributions */ 2823517 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == * What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?<br /> === Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being === ibmch8gzvc32b31s2viuwdheumhgy3s 2823519 2823517 2026-08-20T05:08:51Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being */ 2823519 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == * What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?<br /> == Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being == klyof0lnpoletsj1z1n6yfwp2g1wgyv 2823540 2823519 2026-08-20T05:51:29Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being */ 2823540 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == * What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? * How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? * What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? * How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?<br /> == Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being == * '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024). * '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. * '''Children's emotional well-being is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). == Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being == == Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play == == What does recent research show? == == Supporting outdoor play opportunities? == == Conclusion == == See also == == References == == External links == == Social Contributions == 2ioctpkpoot25xcyjckp04603102e7d 2823561 2823540 2026-08-20T06:17:03Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Focus question */ 2823561 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}} What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? * <br /> == Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being == * '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024). * '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. * '''Children's emotional well-being is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). == Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being == == Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play == == What does recent research show? == == Supporting outdoor play opportunities? == == Conclusion == == See also == == References == == External links == == Social Contributions == of50y21vaaw8l88mkn0js9yj1853c8a 2823562 2823561 2026-08-20T06:18:44Z Mymunu 3106327 2823562 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == {{RoundBoxTop}} What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? * <br /> == Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being == * '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024). * '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. * '''Children's emotional well-being is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). == Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being == == Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play == == What does recent research show? == == Supporting outdoor play opportunities? == == Conclusion == == See also == == References == == External links == == Social Contributions == ovljuoz7q3k3n6vw8uwuzheqplb52nj 2823564 2823562 2026-08-20T06:21:37Z Mymunu 3106327 2823564 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? == Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being == * '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024). * '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. * '''Children's emotional well-being is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). == Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being == == Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play == == What does recent research show? == == Supporting outdoor play opportunities? == == Conclusion == == See also == == References == == External links == == Social Contributions == 9w3rwodcn0p983ov5gewlc3vp4zvrzi 2823565 2823564 2026-08-20T06:26:20Z Mymunu 3106327 /* Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being */ 2823565 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. == Book chapter I am working on == I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? == Interest and hobbies == * == Overview == [[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation. ]]Imagine ... A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors? * As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore, research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play. ==== Key Points ==== * '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1'''). * '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). * '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures. * '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025). * '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts. == Focus question == What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences? What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being? How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being? == Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being == * '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024). * '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. * '''Children's emotional well-being is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026). ====== Outdoor play ====== * Outdoor play is defined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). * == Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being == == Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play == == What does recent research show? == == Supporting outdoor play opportunities? == == Conclusion == == See also == == References == == External links == == Social Contributions == 1qrusha2we6apzepkqoupl33exdnuvf 0 331253 2823104 2822807 2026-08-19T12:15:06Z DavidMCEddy 218607 add WebM + ogg 2823104 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This discusses a 2026-08-13 interview with Teresa Wilke<ref name=Wilke><!--Teresa Wikle-->{{cite Q|Q141110943}}</ref> and Ann Suellentrop<ref name=Suellentrop><!--Suellentrop-->{{cite Q|Q104978249}}</ref> about a workshop they attended on "How to expose media lies and have fun doing it", including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-08-22 to the fortnightly "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''<ref><!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates-->{{cite Q|Q6593294}}</ref> :''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV>The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.</ref> and treating others with respect.''<ref name=AGF>[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|"Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything."]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.</ref> [[File:How to expose media lies and have fun doing it.webm|thumb|A discussion between Terresa Wilke, Ann Suellentrop, and Spencer Graves about a workshop on "How to expose media lies and have fun doing it"]] [[File:How to expose media lies and have fun doing it.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a discussion between Terresa Wilke, Ann Suellentrop, and Spencer Graves about a workshop on "How to expose media lies and have fun doing it"]] Teressa Wilke<ref name=Wilke/> and Ann Suellentrop<ref name=Suellentrop/> discuss their reactions to a workshop they attended on "How to expose media lies and have fun doing it" with Spencer Graves,<ref><!--Spencer Graves-->{{cite Q|Q56452480}}</ref> who organized the workshop with [[Media and war|Robin Andersen]]<ref name=Andersen><!--Robin Andersen-->{{cite Q|Q132982358}}</ref> and [[Peace Economy Project|Katerina Canyon]].<ref name=Canyon><!--Katerina Canyon-->{{cite Q|Q140290658}}</ref> == Highlights == :''These excerpts from the interview are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.'' Graves opened the workshop with the claim that, :''Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.'' An attendee at the workshop challenged this claim, saying she quotes the bible to her Conservative Christian acquaintances. This challenge can be accommodated by revising the claim as follows: :''Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media or differences in interpretation that the different parties find credible.'' A claim like this could be used to invite civil and hopefully pleasant conversations, comparing interpretations and sources, seeking common ground, and agreeing to disagree agreeably in other areas.<ref>Training in media literacy should include exercises in how to respond to anger. This is discussed in the section on "[[#Media organizations often cultivate anger|Media organizations often cultivate anger]]" in [[#Discussion|Discussion]] below.</ref> After Graves' introduction, Canyon described "How War Language Shapes Public Thinking: Media literacy activities for difficult conversations, dehumanization, and the military–industrial–media complex ... . Media do not simply relay war; they construct it." She noted that in "constructing the enemy, history starts late, [and] victims become statistics", as their humanity is written out of the news produced by each party, as they explain why their violence is necessary.<ref>More on this is documented in the interviews in this series with [[John Maxwell Hamilton on American propaganda|John Maxwell Hamilton]] and [[Media and war|Robin Andersen]], including publications of Hamilton and Andersen, cited therein..</ref> Andersen followed, focusing especially on reporting in the US on the [[w:Gaza war|Gaza war]], documented in her recent (2026-06-02) ''The Complicit Lens: US Media Coverage of Israel’s Genocide in Gaza''.<ref>Andersen (2026).</ref> This included comparing reports in major US media with reports of the same events by journalists on the ground in Gaza available on social media and outlets like [[w:Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] sympathetic to [[w:Palestinians|Palestinians]]. This included three examples: * [[w:31 October 2023 Jabalia refugee camp airstrike|Israeli bombing of the Jabalia refugee camp, 2023-10-31]], three and a half weeks after the October 7 attacks. * [[w:Israeli bombing of the Gaza Strip|Israeli bombing of apartment buildings killing over 400 Gazans, including use of 2,000 pound bombs]]. * [[w:Flour Massacre|The 2024-02-29 Flour Massacre]], during which over 100 Palestinians were killed and hundreds more wounded as hungry Gazans approached food trucks. ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]'' reported, "As Hungry Gazans Crowd a Convoy, a Crush of Bodies, Israeli Gunshots, and a Deadly Toll". The ''NYT'' report suggests that the Israeli gunshots were intended to calm the crowd, and the deaths and injuries were from Gazans being trampled. Independent sources visiting hospitals found gunshot wounds and no injuries from being trampled. Survivors described the attack as an [[w:ambush|ambush]],<ref>Marsi et al. (2024).</ref> After the shooting stopped, Gazans returned to the trucks and the soldiers opened fire again.<ref>Graham-Harrison and Julian Borger (2024).</ref> === Reactions === Wilke said she was not surprised by any of the workshop. "I have known since my youngest age that the media does not represent the truth. ... I was very young during the [[w:My Lai massacre|My Lai massacre]], and I remember clearly that that was inappropriately reported. ..." When asked how the workshop could be improved, Wilke replied, "Perhaps they could start in history farther back<ref name=whenStart>[[#Just giving a date for the start of a conflict is often choosing sides.|Just giving a date for the start of a conflict is often choosing sides]], as considered in the [[#Discussion|Discussion]] section below.</ref> and give examples of misrepresentation effects by media. ... That doesn't make anybody a liar just because they have a different opinion of an event than me." ... Suellentrop added, "When you look at a media source, and they consistently have a certain point of view, and then you can read in other media an entirely different point of view, then it makes you pause and wonder." === Follow-on events? === ====''The Other''==== Graves noted that Suellentrop had sent him an email discussing a move ''The Other''.<ref>''The Other'' is a 2024 award-winning documentary exploring Israeli-Palestinian peacebuilding and activist communities, both pre- and post-October 7, 2023. Sela (2024).</ref> He asked if we might try to organize events, e.g., showing movies like that followed by discussions about how attendees might be able to engage others, including potential adversaries, in pleasant, supportive conversations, seeking common ground and agreeing to disagree agreeably on other issues, as mentioned above. Suellentrop agreed: "I think anytime you can introduce some art form into an event, that tends to go a little deeper or reach people that maybe wouldn't come to a lecture. ... That's a way to bring in a bigger audience, maybe, and get people talking." Wilke added, "I don't know how you would have an event and get the polar opposites to attend. ... If there was a MAGA rally in town, I would not go. ... It might be important for me to go, so that I can be aware of their philosophy and their beliefs. But I feel satisfied I'm able to get that from other sources. ... I'm afraid of polar opposites, unless you had something like an ice cream social, something neutral. ... Everybody likes ice cream, no matter what your point of view is, and then you could have more discussion." Graves noted that Katerina Canyon is a poet and writes fiction. "She notes that art, fiction, poetry, music, movies, like you said, can often reach humans who would not likely be reached by news and scientific reports." ==== Data centers ==== Suellentrop added, "I think the current hot topic is [[w:Data center|data centers]]. A lot of people feel upset about them and worried about the environment and health effects, and the way that it's being proposed, it's undemocratic." Graves added, "I saw that the city council in Kansas City, Missouri, voted down a data center, and the public was so riled up they didn't want to quit."<ref>Flores (2026). This article also reported alleged "inconsistencies by the Miami-based developer, which placed a historic preservation easement on the building protecting it from demolition — and later proposing its demolition in March." An earlier report in ''[[w:The Kansas City Defender|The Kansas City Defender]]'' noted that 'the two promoters ... of this “syndicated conservation easement” maneuver moved $1.3 billion in fraudulent deductions before a federal jury in Atlanta convicted them in 2023. They are serving 25 and 23 years." Sorrell (2023).</ref> Wilke said, "I think it's very important to have meetings where you don't represent one bias or the other, and let people feel that they have the right to their personal opinion, even if their personal opinion would be repugnant to me."<ref>Freedom of speech means nothing unless it protects unpopular speech, as discussed in the interview in this series with [[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel with the [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]].</ref> ==== Immigration ==== Suellentrop continued, "I would like to see a more thorough discussion of immigration procedures and regulations and immigration law. A family member told me, 'I think people should come here legally.' I'm like, 'In a perfect world, yeah.' I don't know the specifics, but I understand that the system is broken. It's just not fair." Graves said, {{quote| I've done a modest amount of research on that, and I noticed most recently that [[w:Philippe Aghion|Philippe Aghion]], who shared last year's [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]], in a recent book made a big deal of documenting how immigrants made major contributions to the economic growth of the US from the late 19th century into the early 20th century.<ref>Aghion et al. (2022, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2019) in claiming that between 1880 and 1920 the US overtook "England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita", because the US accepted large numbers of immigrants. Elsewhere, they document how immigrants tend to be overrepresented in patent applications.</ref> However, [[w:Abhijit Banerjee|Banerjee]] and [[w:Esther Duflo|Duflo]], who shared the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, said that nobody knows how to make the economy grow.<ref>Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 151) said, "Of all the things economists have tried (and mostly failed) to predict, growth is one area where we have been particularly pathetic."</ref> I'm sure that's true, but one of the key contributors, I think, to the U.S. dominant position in the international political economy is the fact that we are and have been from our founding a nation of immigrants, and we're less so today. And the rate of growth in average annual income is slowing down. Another major contributor that I've heard is diversity of ownership of the major media. In the 19th century the U.S. had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than any time or place before or since,<ref>John (1995), discussed in the interview with him in this series, [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]].</ref> and I think that's made a major contribution to where we are today, and that has been reversed with massive consolidation of ownership of the major media.}} Wilke added, {{quote| For many years the Mexican immigrant has been cutting our meat in meatpacking plants, and planting, tending, and harvesting vegetables in our fields across California. We're complaining currently about the price of groceries, and yet we're locking up the people who are doing the work. This is not my idea. I'm going to give full credit to Max Parthas.<ref><!--Max Parthas-->{{cite Q|Q141120271}}</ref>}} Graves added, {{quote| Robin Andersen has a 2020 book with Adrian Bergmann on ''Media, Central American Refugees, and the U.S. Border Crisis: Security Discourses, Immigrant Demonization, and the Perpetuation of Violence''.<ref name=AndBerg>Andersen and Bergmann (2020).</ref> The basic theme of that book is something I have said for years before I even knew about the existence of that book: :''If you do not want those people coming here, stop providing guns to the agents of state terror in their countries of origin.'' In fact, the U.S. in 1954 overthrew a democratically elected government in Guatemala because the democratically elected government wanted to prioritize the well-being of its own citizens over US international business interests, and I think that's been true in many other countries. And many of the refugees that are here, especially the ones who are here without papers, "illegal immigrants", are here basically for that very reason.}} Wilke agreed. "It's just another example of how press can manipulate the minds of people. Regarding arms to South America and the idea that "illegal aliens" need to be held in detention centers, and when the price of groceries goes up -- and I'm sure the current administration will have some excuse for why groceries are so high -- and then use that excuse to justify having these people held in detention centers to go back to the same work they've been doing ... ." Graves continued, {{quote| Going back to the Gaza war, years ago I read a book about [[w:The Troubles|"The Troubles" in Northern Ireland]]: The authors said that just picking a date for the beginning of "The Troubles" is equivalent to taking sides,<ref>Mac Ginty and Darby (2002, p. 14). This is discussed further in the section on "[[#Just giving a date for the start of a conflict is often choosing sides.|Just giving a date for the start of a conflict is often choosing sides]]", in the [[#Discussion|Discussion]] section below.</ref> and I think that's dramatically true in the Gaza war and the long-standing conflict between Israel and Palestinians. I think that if the major media in the US had provided reasonable coverage of the routine denial of equal protection of the laws by Israel to Palestinians and non-Jews in Israel and later under Israeli occupation, the government of Israel would have been forced to do things so differently that the Palestine Liberation Organization or any organization like that that were formed would more likely have followed Gandhi than George Washington, and we would have seen a very different history on that.}} Suellentrop agreed: "I think it's very important to give a wide context to whatever problem that you're discussing, to bring in the long history. ... I have heard about the Palestinian-Israeli conflict for years, but I would just hear the headline of the day, and I really couldn't make any sense of it. ... Then I came across [[w:Norman Finkelstein|Norman Finkelstein]]. He's a scholar, and he's studied it in minute detail for decades. ..." === De facto mission of media organizations === Graves noted that, {{quote| :''The ''de facto'' mission of every media organization is to sell changes in audience behavior to the people who give them money.''<ref>more precisely, "The ''de facto'' mission of every media organization is to sell changes in audience behavior to the people who control most of the money for the media."</ref> For [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] and [[w:Community radio|community radio]] stations the people who give them money are the community, and KKFI is staffed substantially by volunteers like me and like Terri.}} Suellentrop continued, "The wider context is that we're living in a capitalistic society, an imperialistic society, and not everybody wants to hear that." Graves agreed. {{quote| The major media get most of their money from international business interests. Now the top ranks of the US tax code are basically close to meaningless because of all the growth in tax loopholes.<ref>During the interview, Graves claimed that, "Some major corporations get tax rebates on taxes they do not even pay." However, he was not able to find a reference confirming that, so that comment was cut from the podcast, though retained in the video.</ref> So small businesses and common citizens pay taxes, so that the major corporations don't have to. And it's worse than that, because I think the vast majority of the national security and foreign policy budgets of the US are used to provide essentially a private escort service for US international business interests, overthrowing foreign governments like Guatemala that I mentioned, but there are many others, to please US international business interests. There was a military coup in Syria in 1949, promptly recognized by President Harry Truman. There was a coup in 1950 in Cuba, and [US President] Harry Truman approved that immediately. That Cuban coup led to the successful revolution that brought Fidel Castro to power that might not have happened if we had allowed democracy to continue there. [[w:1953 Iranian coup d'état|In 1953, the CIA engineered an overthrow]] of the democratically elected government of Iran, which was [[w:Iranian Revolution|overthrown in nonviolent protests in 1979]]. And we've been the Great Satan in Iran ever since. And [[w:1964 Brazilian coup d'état|Brazil had a similar coup under President Johnson]] pushed by the US. And [[w:1973 Chilean coup d'état|in 1973, "the other September 11"]].<ref>"The Latin American September 11" refers to the [[w:1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 Chilean coup d'état]], which occurred 1973-09-11 on orders from US President Richard Nixon, according to multiple sources including declassified US government documents from that period.</ref> And Robin Anderson talks about the US involvement in Central America during the 80s in the book that I mentioned.<ref name=AndBerg/> And in [[w:2009 Honduran coup d'état|2009 there was a coup in Honduras]] supported by [[w:Hillary Clinton|Hillary]]. Thank you very much Hillary! -- that have denied equal protection of the laws to poor people in Central America, which is a primary driver of why they come here.}} Wilke continued, {{quote| I have long thought that the United States was involved in too many foreign affairs. It's good to be aware of what other countries are doing. I like forums like the United Nations, where there are rules and proscribed behaviors. But unless a country would come to the United States and say, "Help us with this or that", and then we could debate that and consider, what other countries do is not much of our business. And I'm surprised that we feel like we have to put military presence in so many countries.}} Suellentrop continued, "Why do we have 800 bases around the world?<ref>Different sources give different numbers of bases for the US. The Wikipedia article on "[[w:List of American military installations|List of American military installations]]" said the US had "at least 128 military bases located outside of its national territory as of July 2024" and listed and another roughly 361 inside the US for a total of 489 when checked 2026-08-18. However, that is almost certainly an undercount. Some installations, especially foreign installations are doubtless secret; anyone who releases classified documents naming them could spend time in prison like [[w:Chelsea Manning|Chelsea Manning]] and [[w:Daniel Hale|Daniel Hale]]. A blog post on <!--"The U.S. Maintains ~750 Military Bases in Over 80 Countries. Here's the Full Picture"-->{{cite Q|Q141122207}} claims the US has "~750 overseas bases". This post is on <!--DaveManuel.com-->{{cite Q|Q141122198}}, which claims it is "Read by over 8,000 people every day ... in over 185 different countries [and] has been referenced by" 23 different major outlets including ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]'', ... [[w:Fox News|Fox News]]. Other sources give different numbers.</ref> No other country comes even close to that.<ref>The Wikipedia article on "[[w:List of countries with overseas military bases|List of countries with overseas military bases]]" seems consistent with the claim that "no other country even comes close".</ref> We have a money-making machine here that will stop at nothing. There is nothing holding it back." Graves said, "Yes, an honest discussion of all of that is basically suppressed by the major media to please the international business interests, who benefit from private citizens, the bottom 99%, and small businesses providing essentially a private escort service to make sure that they get the benefits of the bribes." Suellentrop added, "We never ever hear much in the media about how the military is the worst as far as climate change."<ref>Suelltrop's claim seems supported by the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Environmental impact of war|Environmental impact of war]]", accessed 2026-08-18.</ref> === In sum === Graves then noted they were about out of time and invited final words. Wilke said, "Read more than one newspaper. Go to one more than one source of news and think about what you read." Graves agreed. "Since my time in the US military, 1967 to 1973, I've pushed myself to look for sources that might contradict my preconceptions, that might support what my designated adversaries might say." Suellentrop added, "Look at what the motivations are behind what they're saying. What could be their ulterior motives?" == The need for media reform to improve democracy == This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media & Democracy lessons for the future]]. ==Discussion == :''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV/> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF/>]'' === Media organizations often cultivate anger === Training in media literacy should include exercises in how to respond to anger. One possibility is to calmly acknowledge the concerns expressed while noting that media organizations often push their audiences to be angry at designated "evil others". For example, [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says|Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen said, "The shortest path to a click is anger or hate.]] Also, [[Conservative media are different|Ursinus College communication professor Anthony Nadler noted that, "conservative media like Fox tell their audiences how they are routinely "shamed and stigmatized by liberal elites", cultivating self-righteous anger against the haughty, evil libs."]] However, it's not just conservative media. In preparing for and sustaining war, major media organizations worldwide do it, as documented in the interviews in this series with [[John Maxwell Hamilton on American propaganda|John Maxwell Hamilton]] and [[Media and war|Robin Andersen]]. === Just giving a date for the start of a conflict is often choosing sides.=== Just picking a date for the start of a conflict often implies that one side is an aggressor and the other is "merely defending" themselves. "[E]ven selection of a date to mark the origin of ["[[w:The Troubles|The Troubles in Northern Ireland]]] is viewed with suspicion. ... Those who start with the Norman invasion in 1170, ... interpret the problem as essentially one of British conquest ... . If 1969 ... is selected, the analysis may be dismissed as mistaking violence for conflict and merely treating the symptoms rather than the disease", according to Mac Ginty and Darby (2002, p. 14). How might the world be different if the major media in the US and Europe had provided reasonable coverage of the routine denial of equal protection of the laws to non-Jews in Israel -- routine destruction and confiscation of Palestinian property and incarceration for years without charges of many who complain -- starting in 1950 or 1960? [[How might the world be different if the PLO had followed Gandhi?|Might Palestinian leaders have followed Gandhi rather than George Washington?]] There's a body of evidence suggesting that would have ended the conflict before the [[w:Palestine Liberation Organization|Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) began using [[w:Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] tactics. For example, the nonviolence of the [[w:First Intifada|First Intifada]] had by far the greatest positive impact on Israeli public opinion of anything that Palestinians have done since the foundation of the state of [[w:Israel|Israel]] in 1948. Thousands of Israeli military refused orders to serve in the occupied West Bank, Gaza, and southern Lebanon, where they were ordered to shoot to wound or break bones with clubs. A hundred were [[w:Court-martial|court-martialed]] and incarcerated. [[w:Yitzhak Rabin|Yitzhak Rabin]], then Israeli Defense Minister, realized the nonviolence was destroying the Israeli military. He resigned as Defense Minister and ran for Prime Minister on a platform of negotiating with Palestinians. After he won, he told his supporters that the Palestinians would be better at protecting Israeli interests in the occupied territories than the Israeli military, {{quote|because they will allow no appeals to the Supreme Court and will prevent the Israeli Association of Civil Rights from criticizing the conditions there by denying it access to the area. They will rule by their own methods, freeing, and this is most important, the Israeli army soldiers from having to do what they will do.<ref>Usher (1996, p. 28), which cites ''[[w:Yedioth Ahronoth|Yedi'ot Ahronot]]'', 7 September 1993 as the source for this.</ref>}} ''The point here is how biases in the major media too often drive aggrieved parties to counterproductive violence.'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2022) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Robin Andersen (2026-06-02b) The Complicit Lens: US Media Coverage of Israel’s Genocide in Gaza-->{{cite Q|Q138796307|date=2026b}} * <!--Robin Andersen and Adrian Bergmann (2020) Media, Central American Refugees, and the U.S. Border Crisis: Security Discourses, Immigrant Demonization, and the Perpetuation of Violence--->{{cite Q|Q138798059|}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Cassandra Isobelle Flores (2026-08-10) "Kansas City officials denied a plan for downtown data center. Some residents vow to keep fighting", KCUR-->{{cite Q|Q141111943}} * <!--Emma Graham-Harrison and Julian Borger (2024-03-01) "112 dead in chaotic scenes as Israeli troops open fire near aid trucks, say Gaza officials", The Guardian-->{{cite Q|Q141111545}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Roger Mac Ginty and John Darby (2002) Guns and government: The management of the Northern Ireland peace process-->{{cite Q|Q141114518}} * <!--Federica Marsi, Usaid Siddiqui, Ali Harb, and Brian Osgood (2024-02-29) "Victims of Gaza City attack say they were ambushed"-->{{cite Q|Q141111389}} * <!--Joy Sela (2024) The Other-->{{cite Q|Q141111706}} * <!--Ryan Sorrell (2026-08-06) "Kansas City Killed the Data Center. The Tax Scheme It Was Feeding Is Still Alive"-->{{cite Q|Q141112080}} * <!-- Graham Usher (1996) "The Politics of Internal Security: The PA's New Intelligence Services", Journal of Palestine Studies-->{{cite Q|Q127171442}} [[Category:Media]] [[Category:News]] [[Category:Democracy]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Education]] [[Category:Media literacy]] [[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] <!--list of categories https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review [[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--> slwzprval7q6ko1yrkz7ujkfgtfjse3 2 331263 2823243 2822984 2026-08-20T01:29:59Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823243 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University, studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going out for dinner, shopping, travelling or doing nothing all day to re-charge :) I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == og3b36yf3i3cecn0483dtqau3o5xyfi 2823275 2823243 2026-08-20T01:44:40Z Sienna33309 3106991 headings 2823275 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University, studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going out for dinner, shopping, travelling or doing nothing all day to re-charge :) I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == 8bl5f1p8vccj5oath1kf5t0src33d3h 2823279 2823275 2026-08-20T01:46:36Z Sienna33309 3106991 Dot points and hobbies 2823279 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University, studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * Pilates * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == 3pp80jtaruwqr491c3734wnlssrsoaz 2823285 2823279 2026-08-20T01:48:45Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823285 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University, studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ Pilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == 8w3qnwl04cukdy627q3h75msgdcapj4 2823295 2823285 2026-08-20T01:50:41Z Sienna33309 3106991 links 2823295 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ Pilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == ekphvwys8bucq9gvxdtr0m0itzbo22g 2823388 2823295 2026-08-20T03:08:16Z Sienna33309 3106991 created a social contribution 2823388 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ Pilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] 5cx1jawsla4oba244mykgkc9avx2erx 2823498 2823388 2026-08-20T04:31:27Z Sienna33309 3106991 Updated links 2823498 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically the studio i often visit [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] d5q7t0ukf9hb1kos797dalyyj3e8hy3 2823568 2823498 2026-08-20T06:56:36Z Sienna33309 3106991 added link to wikiversity site 2823568 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically the studio i often visit [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with external resources for book chapter]] 170lf4mprgjyii8bfcn36ny1yxj7ccd 2823569 2823568 2026-08-20T06:57:53Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823569 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) Some of my hobbies include: * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically the studio i often visit [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] 17ouee8h5vwnmhvunnmt2003sck4gx1 2823574 2823569 2026-08-20T07:12:04Z Sienna33309 3106991 bold 2823574 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically the studio i often visit [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] sjoqd3nc7pb7zl84oi8f1eq61bxxfac 2823575 2823574 2026-08-20T07:15:14Z Sienna33309 3106991 minor changes 2823575 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me going doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] 45opr7ef2cv5wn90rla5171i1ia9wcp 2823576 2823575 2026-08-20T07:15:47Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823576 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] 1xgdwnbnpji9ballwrgelozxo6j6s85 2823577 2823576 2026-08-20T07:16:39Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823577 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] r03sqt6hpg6vn66ijzwu43hav32crnu 2823581 2823577 2026-08-20T07:24:30Z Sienna33309 3106991 Added an image 2823581 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) [[File:IMG 1266.jpg|thumb|My favourite holiday so far! An elephant sanctuary in Chiang Mai, Thailand.]] '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] 2orrhqdzfqten6ulnqs2yalevkupekd 2823582 2823581 2026-08-20T07:25:18Z Sienna33309 3106991 minor 2823582 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) [[File:IMG 1266.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' My favourite holiday so far! An elephant sanctuary in Chiang Mai, Thailand.]] '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] ab0trxagqirbcl2n2ahz1y3o1hqobzp 2823585 2823582 2026-08-20T07:29:47Z Sienna33309 3106991 added link 2823585 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) [[File:IMG 1266.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' My favourite holiday so far! An [https://elephant-sanctuary.org/chiang-mai Elephant Sanctuary] in Chiang Mai, Thailand.]] '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] k2a7mcyxdl9p191h8p1dx63lxr48cny 2823602 2823585 2026-08-20T08:34:16Z Sienna33309 3106991 Added contribution 2823602 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) [[File:IMG 1266.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' My favourite holiday so far! An [https://elephant-sanctuary.org/chiang-mai Elephant Sanctuary] in Chiang Mai, Thailand.]] '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] # 20/08/2026 [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImpulsivity_versus_sensation-seeking&diff=2823600&oldid=2823223 Changed figure 1 to fit APA formatting] mx2i7r45oe0yefprsx68y5lqryusu2g 2823604 2823602 2026-08-20T08:35:50Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823604 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/sienna-puglielli-a26b2142a/ Sienna], i am in my third year of University at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/MGSC02/2/2024 Bachelor of Business Marketing/ Science in Psychology], with my final year of studies concluding next year (2027). I currently work in hospitality and have worked in the industry for almost 6 years, with a flexible roster. In the coming months, i hope to extend my experience and gain some exposure in workplaces that will facilitate my skills development in psychology and business. When i'm not working or studying, you'll likely find me doing nothing all day to re-charge or the following hobbies :) [[File:IMG 1266.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' My favourite holiday so far! An [https://elephant-sanctuary.org/chiang-mai Elephant Sanctuary] in Chiang Mai, Thailand.]] '''<big>Hobbies:</big>''' * [[wikipedia:Pilates|Pilates]], specifically this studio situated in Kingston, Canberra: [https://www.nrgpilates.com.au/ NRGPilates] * Lake walks * Travelling * Research I'm still unsure of what i would like to do with my degrees, but overtime my interest has gravitated towards the research side of both health and business. == Book Chapter I'm working on == The focus of the book chapter i am currently working on is all about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement|Consumer emotion measurement]]. I am particularly looking forward to sharing my insights as i have chosen a topic that ties in my knowledge from both my areas of study thus far. == Social Contributions == # 20/08/2026 [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806207 Contributed to a class discussion on topic learning] # 20/08/2026 [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation#c-Sienna33309-20260820025300-Helpful references|Created a discussion on a user's page to assist them with 2 external resources for book chapter]] # 20/08/2026 [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImpulsivity_versus_sensation-seeking&diff=2823600&oldid=2823223 Changed "figure 1" to fit APA formatting (Bolding figure)] 5iqd7he22wu5t84slq1hgqfw3m2stqc 2 331266 2823409 2822935 2026-08-20T03:15:48Z Ckopplemann 3108346 /* Social Contribution */ 2823409 wikitext text/x-wiki == Personal Description == My Name is ''Clare Kopplemann'' and I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] as a part of my bachelor of Science in Psychology. I am a third year student with a passion for understanding people and behaviour along with [[w:Physiological_psychology|physiological psychology.]] My personal interests and hobbies include * AFL & AFLW (Supporting the Carlton Football Club) * Travelling * Cooking and Baking * Bar and Gaming work * Caring for my domestic and stray pet cats == Linked-In == * [https://www.linkedin.com/in/clare-kopplemann-5a3a972a0/ linked-in.com-clare-kopplemann] == The Book Chapter I am Currently Working On == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] == Social Contribution == # Edited a title on a page 26wf3gr8sqfr9immqlzlh2dl66jbwzp 2 331273 2823429 2823067 2026-08-20T03:21:48Z U3284040 3106549 /* Social Contributions */ 2823429 wikitext text/x-wiki == Brief Biography == [start here] == Book Chapter == I am working on the chapter [insert chapter title and link] == Social Contributions == [Brief summary of social contribution 1 (Added the template to this page and edited the title 19/08/2026) + https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGetting_started&diff=2823064&oldid=2823062] [Brief summary of social contribution 2 + https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&diff=2823426&oldid=2823423] [Brief summary of social contribution 3 + HyperLink] 27ry07knusa1i82en7nj5vx4q7u021d 2823635 2823429 2026-08-20T11:44:17Z U3284040 3106549 /* Social Contributions */ 2823635 wikitext text/x-wiki == Brief Biography == [start here] == Book Chapter == I am working on the chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation|social connection and emotion regulation]]. Feel free to suggest any references or content that I should address in the discussion page! == Social Contributions == * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGetting_started&diff=2823064&oldid=2823062 Added the template and edited the title for this page (19/08/2026)] * [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&diff=2823426&oldid=2823423 Added the template and edited the title for this page (20/08/2026)] * [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806521 Posted a reply to a UCLearn discussion post (20/08/2026)] qbeige3mfl2o12jci3mw2zhd0javyi4 0 331278 2823103 2823100 2026-08-19T12:12:50Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Alyssontinae */ 2823103 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *Genus ''Bembix'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Afrogorytes'' *Genus ''Gorytes'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Harpactus'' *Genus ''Hoplisoides'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Lestiphorus'' *Genus ''Handlirschia'' *Genus ''Ammatomus'' *Genus ''Kohlia'' *Genus ''Sphecius'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Bembecinus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Stizoides'' *Genus ''Stizus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == 07h2a10uehed1gdy6n9lxeiuhmgy0g7 2823106 2823103 2026-08-19T12:27:27Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823106 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *Genus ''Bembix'' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Afrogorytes'' *Genus ''Gorytes'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Harpactus'' *Genus ''Hoplisoides'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Lestiphorus'' *Genus ''Handlirschia'' *Genus ''Ammatomus'' *Genus ''Kohlia'' *Genus ''Sphecius'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Bembecinus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Stizoides'' *Genus ''Stizus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == iknmq220j90ltp4m2wc3oswi1g9jy49 2823112 2823106 2026-08-19T12:32:08Z MathXplore 2888076 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 2823112 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *Genus ''Bembix'' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Afrogorytes'' *Genus ''Gorytes'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Harpactus'' *Genus ''Hoplisoides'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Lestiphorus'' *Genus ''Handlirschia'' *Genus ''Ammatomus'' *Genus ''Kohlia'' *Genus ''Sphecius'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Bembecinus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Stizoides'' *Genus ''Stizus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} j018v6fcov6nkgvxvvnnzuf9j51ahl0 2823115 2823112 2026-08-19T12:36:12Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823115 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *Genus ''Bembix'' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Afrogorytes'' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Gorytes'' <ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Harpactus'' *Genus ''Hoplisoides'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Lestiphorus'' *Genus ''Handlirschia'' *Genus ''Ammatomus'' *Genus ''Kohlia'' *Genus ''Sphecius'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Bembecinus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Stizoides'' *Genus ''Stizus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 0bhvl772gml1q50u9ghvcrazv8c9j9a 2823118 2823115 2026-08-19T12:44:54Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823118 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *Genus ''Bembix'' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Afrogorytes'' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Gorytes'' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]], [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]], [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]], and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]]. <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Harpactus'' *Genus ''Hoplisoides'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Lestiphorus'' *Genus ''Handlirschia'' *Genus ''Ammatomus'' *Genus ''Kohlia'' *Genus ''Sphecius'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Bembecinus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Stizoides'' *Genus ''Stizus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} s6gegjp99owxpenzgl950gapya08qlw 2823121 2823118 2026-08-19T12:57:23Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823121 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *Genus ''Bembix'' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Afrogorytes'' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Gorytes'' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers). <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the ([[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]]) </gallery> *Genus ''Harpactus'' *Genus ''Hoplisoides'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Lestiphorus'' *Genus ''Handlirschia'' *Genus ''Ammatomus'' *Genus ''Kohlia'' *Genus ''Sphecius'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Bembecinus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *Genus ''Stizoides'' *Genus ''Stizus'' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} l7b90ml5ygks4j3kc51w4pejxwdqs65 2823122 2823121 2026-08-19T12:59:30Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823122 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> '''*Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers). <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the ([[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]]) </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 0cdmt6oedggpkotwduwrwizber15mvp 2823123 2823122 2026-08-19T12:59:55Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823123 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers). <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the ([[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]]) </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *Genus ''Brachystegus'' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Hovanysson'' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *Genus ''Nysson'' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} nv458njdfuyiqyxzleyujslwwrr8mcg 2823124 2823123 2026-08-19T13:02:37Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Nyssoninae */ 2823124 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *Genus ''Alysson'' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *Genus ''Didineis'' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers). <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the ([[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]]) </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} ofy30y8dygya2siagvmj6mhtofqx3qc 2823125 2823124 2026-08-19T13:03:09Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Alyssontinae */ 2823125 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers). <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the ([[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]]) </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} ecmvjjn0tm9xkufj4y7d0gvgt72d89r 2823126 2823125 2026-08-19T13:04:48Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823126 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species.<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref> Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers). <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} tqsguw7p7n5x6ikzqm1esvokr6yy7s9 2823128 2823126 2026-08-19T13:26:00Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823128 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref></ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 4p8ejrmdr22s9g6bqrizwnizpxdnnen 2823129 2823128 2026-08-19T13:26:37Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823129 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 2rhc82zg03hxfd7zyxv44fvgfm5a2km 2823130 2823129 2026-08-19T13:28:52Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823130 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} d9qq8gh3kqi9y96nr1f2fp3wi37pvpr 2823133 2823130 2026-08-19T13:33:30Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Afrotropical Bembicidae */ 2823133 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 1r4j0213xc6i2n5pvmjkzk4ltflyt5b 2823134 2823133 2026-08-19T13:41:53Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823134 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} cvgfq3y6h80dnboocvtzzsu2vc24fnf 2823137 2823134 2026-08-19T14:06:24Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823137 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' Genus ''Stizoides'' has 30 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NSR</ref> Seventeen species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} tk5i57pczspuolee6kgslw6uud48dic 2823152 2823137 2026-08-19T14:26:11Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823152 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' Genus ''Stizoides'' has 30 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NSR</ref> Seventeen species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' Genus ''Stizus'' has 108 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref> Forty-one species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} ikohe4grwxhetdj3bgmgbwixa8q0wgp 2823153 2823152 2026-08-19T14:27:26Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823153 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. They are used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' Genus ''Stizoides'' has 30 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NSR</ref> Seventeen species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' Genus ''Stizus'' has 108 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NT2</ref> Forty-one species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} bwiu5555n3v4attdd3lpo2u8lc1ewn6 2823154 2823153 2026-08-19T14:29:38Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Bembicinae */ 2823154 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. The flies are stung to paralyze them; they are then used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' Genus ''Stizoides'' has 30 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NSR</ref> Seventeen species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' Genus ''Stizus'' has 108 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NT2</ref> Forty-one species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 4tgtvjd50hm356bsrvf31zo0z2sm1c2 2823161 2823154 2026-08-19T15:43:14Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Nyssoninae */ 2823161 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. The flies are stung to paralyze them; they are then used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' Genus ''Stizoides'' has 30 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NSR</ref> Seventeen species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' Genus ''Stizus'' has 108 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NT2</ref> Forty-one species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Brachystegus inaturalist 150076001.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} 2etbqcbmm7w7bhv9kp28p5v4igd8mvu 2823208 2823161 2026-08-19T20:34:10Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subfamily Nyssoninae */ 2823208 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Afrotropical [[w:Bembicidae|Bembicidae]]== Bembicidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). They are also known as sand wasps, as most make nests in burrows dug in sandy soil. Afrotropical Bembicidae comprise 18 genera in three subfamilies<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> (illustrated below). === Subfamily Alyssontinae === These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Alysson''''' ''Alysson'' is widespread across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/250773-Alysson</ref> There are four Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Alysson/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Didineis''''' ''Didineis'' is generally uncommon, but found across North America and [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]].<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/457/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/574332-Didineis</ref> There is at least one undescribed species known from South Africa.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Alyssontinae/Didineis/Didineis_species.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> === Subfamily Bembicinae === *'''Genus ''Bembix''''' Prey of ''Bembix'' species are mostly flies from the [[w:Muscoidea|Muscoidea]], [[w:Tabanidae|Tabanidae]], [[w:Hoverfly|Syrphidae]], [[w:Dolichopodidae|Dolichopodidae]], and [[w:Therevidae|Therevidae]]. The flies are stung to paralyze them; they are then used to provision their nests, which are burrows that they dig in loose sand or harder soils.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> About 70 Afrotropical species have been described.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembix capensis 386096979.jpg Bembix triangulifera.png Bembix iN 195581985.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Afrogorytes''''' There are two species of ''Afrogorytes''; both are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Gorytes''''' The genus includes about 50 species in the [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]] region, and six Afrotropical species. Their prey includes species from the [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers), [[w:Fulgoridae|Fulgoridae]] (lanternflies), [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers), and [[w:Treehopper|Membracidae]] (treehoppers).<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/499/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Gorytes natalensis 112517046.jpg|''Gorytes natalensis'' - these are known to prey on the [[w:Ptyelus grossus|Common Raintree Spittlebug]] </gallery> *'''Genus ''Harpactus''''' This genus is mainly [[w:Holarctic realm|Holarctic]], but there are seven Afrotropical species (one from Madagascar, and six from South Africa). They prey on [[w:Leafhopper|Cidadellidae]] (leafhoppers) and [[w:Cercopidae|Cercopidae]] (froghoppers).<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/495/mode/2up</ref><ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4TSL</ref> *'''Genus ''Hoplisoides''''' There are 14 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Hoplisoides thalia iN 268375748 a.jpg Hoplisoides iN 250545880 Shingwedzi Rest Camp, Kruger.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Lestiphorus''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Handlirschia''''' There are two Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Ammatomus''''' There are 16 Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Kohlia''''' There is one Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Sphecius''''' There are three Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 01.jpg Sphecius inaturalist 65474997 02.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Bembecinus''''' This is a large genus (196 species found worldwide); many are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/62GHP</ref><ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Bembecinus iN 153052948.jpg Bembecinus iN 256481028.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Stizoides''''' Genus ''Stizoides'' has 30 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NSR</ref> Seventeen species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> *'''Genus ''Stizus''''' Genus ''Stizus'' has 108 species found in North America, Eurasia, and Africa.<ref>https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/7NT2</ref> Forty-one species are Afrotropical.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Sand wasp (Stizus fuscipennis).jpg Stizus imperialis.jpg Stizus inaturalist 250421218 01.jpg </gallery> === Subfamily Nyssoninae === *'''Genus ''Brachystegus''''' ''Brachystegus'' is known from the Palearctic and Afrotropics;<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> there are seven Afrotropical species.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Classification/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Brachystegus inaturalist 150076001.jpg </gallery> *'''Genus ''Hovanysson''''' This genus is limited to two species from Madagascar.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Hovanysson/index.htm</ref><ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/471/mode/2up</ref> *'''Genus ''Nysson''''' ''Nysson'' is a large genus, widely distributed in North America and Europe,<ref>https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_FExMjuRhjpIC/page/467/mode/2up</ref> but limited to a few species in the Afrotropics.<ref>https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Bembicidae/Nyssoninae/Nysson/index.htm</ref> <gallery mode=packed heights=200> </gallery> == References == {{BookCat}} i5llbkk5gysk3br4zj1oabxwkp762d1 0 331281 2823455 2823092 2026-08-20T03:33:22Z Jtneill 10242 Added title 2823455 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and nature:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]] . mi9jzxjz1oq6nuw2i9df15567xo4h6y 3 331286 2823110 2823077 2026-08-19T12:31:13Z MathXplore 2888076 Reset talk page with [[:w:simple:User:DannyS712/Reset talk|reset talk]] (version 1.1) 2823110 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} 6ujz0t3lkt6jsf7d1r360l6l7wj3njb 2823111 2823110 2026-08-19T12:31:27Z MathXplore 2888076 advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2823111 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} == 2026-08-19 == <div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" style="text-align: left; display: inline" lang="en">[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. 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Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} srpv4js4yhpgls9tfimcx8epb0pjzmb 1 331301 2823221 2026-08-19T22:10:41Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Reference material */ new section 2823221 wikitext text/x-wiki == Reference material == Hi, I recently did some work on aspects of perfectionism and procrastination. You may find these starter references helpful. Goodluck. Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Hewitt, P. L., & Koledin, S. (1992). Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students. ''Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal'', 20(2), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1992.20.2.85 Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449-468. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/BF01172967 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967] Holden, C. L. (2020). The 'perfect' counsellor: Personality factors and multidimensional perfectionism. ''British Journal of Guidance & Counselling'', 48(2), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2019.1682122 Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2 [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 22:10, 19 August 2026 (UTC) qo37yisxfabpotu7ygfspmi7l73etke 2823343 2823221 2026-08-20T02:12:33Z Jtneill 10242 /* Check out other chapters about procrastination */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 2823343 wikitext text/x-wiki == Reference material == Hi, I recently did some work on aspects of perfectionism and procrastination. You may find these starter references helpful. Goodluck. Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Hewitt, P. L., & Koledin, S. (1992). Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students. ''Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal'', 20(2), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1992.20.2.85 Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449-468. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/BF01172967 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967] Holden, C. L. (2020). The 'perfect' counsellor: Personality factors and multidimensional perfectionism. ''British Journal of Guidance & Counselling'', 48(2), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2019.1682122 Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2 [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 22:10, 19 August 2026 (UTC) == Check out other chapters about procrastination == There have been several previous procrastination chapters, so make sure to check them out. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:12, 20 August 2026 (UTC) edask06rpfbi03usrpx4scf8lprtgst 2823619 2823343 2026-08-20T08:59:10Z Jtneill 10242 /* Check out other chapters about procrastination */ 2823619 wikitext text/x-wiki == Reference material == Hi, I recently did some work on aspects of perfectionism and procrastination. You may find these starter references helpful. Goodluck. Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Hewitt, P. L., & Koledin, S. (1992). Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students. ''Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal'', 20(2), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1992.20.2.85 Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449-468. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/BF01172967 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967] Holden, C. L. (2020). The 'perfect' counsellor: Personality factors and multidimensional perfectionism. ''British Journal of Guidance & Counselling'', 48(2), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2019.1682122 Stoeber, J., & Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2 [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 22:10, 19 August 2026 (UTC) == Check out other chapters about procrastination == There have been several previous procrastination chapters, so make sure to check them out: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:12, 20 August 2026 (UTC) c9dlg87a1vdl3cf2o9cqo64w8thvavj 0 331302 2823227 2026-08-19T23:39:01Z Medicaldoctor91 3107404 Create evidence-based learning resource on structured facial assessment before aesthetic botulinum toxin treatment 2823227 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Medical disclaimer}} '''Facial assessment before aesthetic botulinum toxin treatment''' is an open learning resource about structured pre-treatment assessment in facial aesthetic practice. It focuses on clinical reasoning before treatment rather than on injection coordinates, fixed dosing recipes, or product-conversion rules. The central principle is that aesthetic botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) treatment should follow an individualized assessment of the person, the face at rest and in motion, interacting facial muscle groups, baseline asymmetries, treatment goals, and relevant risk factors.<ref name="sundaram2016">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26910696/ Sundaram H, et al. Global Aesthetics Consensus: Botulinum Toxin Type A—Evidence-Based Review, Emerging Concepts, and Consensus Recommendations for Aesthetic Use, Including Updates on Complications. ''Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery''. 2016;137(3):518e–529e. doi:10.1097/01.PRS.0000475758.63709.23.]</ref><ref name="integrative2022">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36322138/ Integrative Assessment for Optimizing Aesthetic Outcomes When Treating Glabellar Lines With Botulinum Toxin Type A: An Appreciation of the Role of the Frontalis. ''Aesthetic Surgery Journal''. 2023;43(3):NP181–NP194. doi:10.1093/asj/sjac267.]</ref> This resource is intended for advanced learners and healthcare professionals studying facial aesthetics. It does not replace supervised clinical training, local regulation, current product labeling, informed consent, or individualized professional judgment. == Learning objectives == After working through this resource, a learner should be able to: * distinguish a '''facial assessment''' from a simple wrinkle count; * explain why observation at both '''rest and animation''' matters; * recognize that muscles act as an interacting system rather than isolated targets; * identify baseline features that may influence aesthetic interpretation, including brow position, eyelid characteristics, facial asymmetry, soft-tissue support, and habitual compensatory activity; * structure a patient-centered history around goals, prior treatments, prior adverse effects, and expectations; * explain why standardized photographs, expressions, and documentation are useful before treatment; * identify circumstances in which treatment should be deferred pending further evaluation, clarification, or referral; * separate assessment principles from product-specific dosing and injection technique. == 1. Start with the person, not an injection map == Aesthetic assessment begins by clarifying what the person is seeking to change and why. A line that is visually prominent to a clinician may not be the patient's principal concern, while a subtler feature may be highly important to that patient. Consensus work in facial aesthetics emphasizes patient-centered goals, realistic expectations, and an individualized treatment journey rather than a standardized procedural template.<ref name="journey2024">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38327550/ Philipp-Dormston WG, et al. The Patient Journey in Facial Aesthetics: Findings from a European Consensus Meeting on Improving the Quality of Life for Patients Receiving Botulinum Toxin Injections. ''Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology''. 2024;17:329–337. doi:10.2147/CCID.S446891.]</ref> A useful opening assessment explores: * the patient's own description of the concern; * whether the goal is softening movement, changing a line visible at rest, altering a contour, or changing how an expression is perceived; * the degree of movement the patient wishes to retain; * prior aesthetic procedures and whether previous results were satisfactory; * prior unexpected weakness, asymmetry, eyelid or brow change, smile change, swallowing difficulty, or other adverse effects; * time course of prior BoNT-A exposure and, where known, the product used; * expectations about onset, duration, symmetry, and the possibility that one modality may not address every component of the concern. The consultation should also make room for psychosocial context. Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is relevant to aesthetic settings, and validated screening instruments exist; however, screening is not the same as making a psychiatric diagnosis. The purpose of recognizing concerning patterns is to improve patient selection and support appropriate referral rather than to label a patient casually.<ref name="bdd2023">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36878447/ Body dysmorphic disorder: A critical appraisal of diagnostic, screening, and assessment tools. 2023.]</ref><ref name="bddpath2024">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38216141/ An Evidence-based Pathway for Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Facial Aesthetics. 2024.]</ref> == 2. Review medical context and treatment suitability == Pre-treatment assessment should include a relevant medical and medication history. Exact contraindications and warnings differ by product and jurisdiction, so the current locally approved prescribing information should be consulted rather than relying on a generic checklist. Areas commonly reviewed before aesthetic BoNT-A treatment include: * previous hypersensitivity or adverse reaction to a botulinum toxin preparation or formulation component; * infection or active inflammatory process at a proposed treatment site; * known neuromuscular disease or symptoms suggesting impaired neuromuscular transmission; * medicines that may alter neuromuscular transmission, and medicines or supplements relevant to bleeding or bruising risk; * previous facial surgery, trauma, nerve injury, facial palsy, synkinesis, or other conditions that alter baseline movement; * pregnancy or lactation, with decisions guided by current evidence, product labeling, local rules, and clinical context rather than assumptions; * previous treatment elsewhere when product, dose, timing, or injected areas are uncertain. A recent review of upper-face botulinum toxin practice reiterates that patient evaluation and selection are critical and that understanding anatomy is central to complication prevention.<ref name="upperthird2025">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40368730/ Botulinum Toxin Use in the Upper Third of the Face. 2025. doi:10.1016/j.otc.2025.02.003.]</ref> == 3. Observe the face at rest first == Assessment at rest establishes the baseline against which dynamic change will be interpreted. Important observations include: * brow height, shape, and right-left difference; * upper-eyelid show, dermatochalasis, and apparent or true eyelid/brow ptosis; * forehead line pattern and whether lines are visible without active frontalis contraction; * glabellar line depth at rest; * periorbital line pattern and lower-eyelid position; * nasal, perioral, chin, jawline, and platysmal asymmetries where those regions are relevant; * facial proportions, soft-tissue volume, skin quality, and skeletal support that may contribute to a static appearance not primarily driven by muscle activity. The purpose is not to classify every minor asymmetry as abnormal. Normal faces are asymmetric. The practical question is whether an asymmetry is likely to affect treatment planning, expectation-setting, or interpretation of the result. == 4. Reassess during standardized animation == Static inspection alone cannot reveal how the facial muscle system behaves. Multiple consensus publications recommend evaluating the face both at rest and during animation.<ref name="samcep2023">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37408173/ SAMCEP Society consensus on the treatment of upper facial lines with botulinum neurotoxin type A: A tailored approach. 2023.]</ref> Depending on the area being studied, standardized movements may include: * maximal eyebrow elevation; * frowning or drawing the brows medially; * gentle and maximal eye closure; * spontaneous and posed smiling; * nasal scrunching; * lip pursing and other perioral movements; * chin contraction; * jaw clenching when masseter activity is relevant; * platysmal activation when lower-face or neck dynamics are relevant. The learner should watch for '''sequence, strength, recruitment, compensation, and asymmetry''', not just the final wrinkle pattern. Repeating the same expression can help distinguish a reproducible movement pattern from a transient or poorly understood instruction. == 5. Think in functional muscle groups == Facial muscles interact mechanically and visually. Weakening one component can change the relative dominance of another. This is particularly important in the upper face, where brow position reflects the balance between the frontalis and brow-depressing muscle groups. An integrative assessment of the forehead, glabella, brow, and eyelids therefore provides more information than treating each region as an isolated rectangle.<ref name="integrative2022" /> Questions for the upper face include: * Is the frontalis contributing to habitual compensation for a low brow or upper-eyelid heaviness? * Is frontalis recruitment symmetric? * Does one brow elevate earlier or farther than the other? * Is the patient's desired brow shape compatible with baseline anatomy and muscle recruitment? * Are glabellar lines primarily dynamic, or is there a substantial static component? * Does maximal smiling change lower-eyelid or lateral canthal behavior in a way that should be documented? The same relational principle applies beyond the upper face. Lower-face movement involves multiple elevators, depressors, sphincters, and stabilizers with roles in expression and oral competence. Lower-face treatment is generally considered more anatomically demanding and should not be reduced to isolated line chasing.<ref name="lowerface2017">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28841604/ de Maio M, et al. Facial Assessment and Injection Guide for Botulinum Toxin and Injectable Hyaluronic Acid Fillers: Focus on the Lower Face. ''Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery''. 2017;140(3):393e–404e. doi:10.1097/PRS.0000000000003646.]</ref> == 6. Identify compensation before modifying it == A muscle can be active because it is the primary source of an unwanted expression, because it is compensating for another structural or functional feature, or both. Examples include: * persistent frontalis activity helping maintain brow position; * asymmetric frontalis recruitment compensating for baseline brow asymmetry; * altered smile mechanics after dental, neurologic, surgical, or traumatic change; * asymmetric lower-face recruitment associated with previous facial nerve dysfunction; * platysmal or chin recruitment that becomes more visible when another movement pattern changes. A pre-treatment record should distinguish what is visible '''before''' treatment from what emerges after the balance of forces changes. == 7. Separate dynamic and static components == BoNT-A changes neuromuscular activity; it does not directly restore lost volume, alter bone structure, or erase every static crease. The relative contributions of movement, skin quality, soft-tissue volume, ligamentous support, and skeletal anatomy should therefore be considered before deciding what a realistic outcome would look like. This distinction supports more accurate counseling: * a predominantly dynamic line may change differently from a deeply etched static line; * a contour concern may involve volume or structural factors in addition to muscle activity; * a perceived asymmetry may persist because it is partly skeletal or soft-tissue based; * the optimal endpoint may be '''controlled movement''' rather than maximal immobility. == 8. Use standardized documentation == Good baseline documentation improves communication, follow-up comparison, and interpretation of unexpected outcomes. With appropriate consent and privacy safeguards, standardized photography can include: * frontal face at rest; * oblique or lateral views when relevant; * standardized maximal expressions corresponding to the regions being assessed; * consistent camera distance, head position, lighting, and facial instruction when feasible. Clinical notes can record: * principal patient goals in the patient's own words; * relevant history and previous treatment experience; * baseline asymmetries; * key findings at rest and in motion; * discussion of limitations and alternatives; * the agreed treatment objective rather than only the planned procedure. == 9. A compact pre-treatment assessment framework == The following mnemonic is a learning aid, not a validated clinical instrument. {| class="wikitable" ! Domain !! Questions |- | '''G — Goals''' || What does the patient want to change? What movement do they want to preserve? |- | '''H — History''' || Previous BoNT-A, adverse effects, surgery, neurologic history, medications, relevant health context? |- | '''R — Rest''' || Baseline brow, eyelid, lines, asymmetry, skin/soft-tissue/skeletal context? |- | '''A — Animation''' || What changes with standardized expression? Which muscles recruit, compensate, or differ side to side? |- | '''P — Proportions and relationships''' || How do adjacent regions and opposing muscle groups interact? |- | '''H — Harm reduction''' || Are there reasons to defer, seek more information, refer, or use a different strategy? |- | '''D — Documentation''' || Are goals, photographs, asymmetries, consent discussion, and baseline findings recorded? |} == 10. Worked reasoning examples == These examples illustrate assessment logic only and intentionally omit injection points and doses. === Example A: forehead lines with low resting brow === A patient requests complete removal of forehead movement. At rest, the brow sits relatively low and the frontalis is mildly active even before the patient is asked to raise the eyebrows. During animation, frontalis recruitment is strong and appears to contribute to maintaining brow position. '''Learning point:''' the forehead should not be interpreted in isolation. Baseline brow position, eyelid characteristics, and compensatory frontalis activity should be documented and discussed before any decision about modifying movement.<ref name="integrative2022" /> === Example B: asymmetric glabellar recruitment === At rest, the brows are mildly asymmetric. During frowning, one side recruits earlier and more strongly. The patient had not noticed the asymmetry before the consultation. '''Learning point:''' documenting pre-existing asymmetry is essential. Symmetry of treatment does not necessarily mean identical treatment of inherently asymmetric anatomy, and a post-treatment difference should be interpreted against the pre-treatment baseline. === Example C: dissatisfaction with a previous “frozen” result === A patient reports that a previous treatment reduced lines but made facial expression feel unnatural. Their new goal is softer movement rather than maximal line elimination. '''Learning point:''' outcome quality is partly defined by the patient's goal. A technically visible reduction in movement is not automatically equivalent to patient satisfaction.<ref name="journey2024" /> == 11. What this resource deliberately does not provide == This learning resource does '''not''' provide: * fixed injection coordinates; * universal doses; * conversion ratios between BoNT-A products; * instructions for unlicensed practice; * a substitute for anatomy training, supervised procedural education, or product-specific prescribing information. Different BoNT-A preparations are not simply interchangeable by a universal unit-conversion rule, and published consensus recommendations repeatedly emphasize individualized anatomy and product-specific practice.<ref name="abobot2012">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22941910/ Current aesthetic use of abobotulinumtoxinA in clinical practice: an evidence-based consensus review. 2012.]</ref> == 12. Self-assessment questions == # Why can strong resting frontalis activity be clinically meaningful before aesthetic treatment? # What information is added by observing a face during animation rather than only at rest? # Give three examples of baseline asymmetry that should be documented. # Why should a static etched line not automatically be interpreted as a pure muscle-activity problem? # What is the difference between BDD screening and diagnosing BDD? # Why is a patient goal such as “retain natural movement” clinically relevant to assessment? # Why should product-specific contraindications and warnings be checked in current local labeling? == 13. Suggested learning activity == Using standardized, consented photographs or a teaching model, create a one-page assessment note containing: # the stated aesthetic goal; # observations at rest; # observations during two or more standardized expressions; # a description of any right-left difference; # an explanation of at least one interacting muscle relationship; # one factor that could limit the expected result; # one reason treatment might need to be deferred or additional information obtained. The exercise is complete when another learner can understand the baseline facial pattern without being told an injection plan. == Evidence overview == The assessment model in this resource is consistent with recurring themes across consensus statements and reviews: individualized treatment, evaluation at rest and animation, attention to functional anatomy and interacting muscle groups, patient-centered goals, and structured follow-up.<ref name="sundaram2016" /><ref name="samcep2023" /><ref name="journey2024" /> A 2026 systematic review of upper-face aesthetic BoNT-A studies also reported substantial heterogeneity across clinical outcomes and emphasized the need for stronger evidence-driven standardization of outcome assessment.<ref name="meta2026">[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41508559/ Cosmetic Botulinum Toxin A Injections to the Upper Face: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Studies. 2026.]</ref> == Related learning resources == * [[Botulinum toxin in aesthetic medicine]] * [[School:Medicine]] * [[Wikiversity:Medical disclaimer]] == Author and provenance == This resource was developed by [[d:Q140287622|Saeed Ghezelbash]] as an openly licensed Wikiversity learning resource. It synthesizes published literature for educational use and is intended to remain open to collaborative improvement. The author attribution describes contribution to this learning resource and does not imply that Wikiversity endorses any individual, clinic, product, or treatment approach. == References == <references /> [[Category:Medicine]] [[Category:Learning resources]] 5si2kdz943xr02y5lab27zpcdjpg228 2 331303 2823240 2026-08-20T01:21:07Z U3275940 3106402 Created page with "== Who I am == My name is Ava, I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I enjoy....." 2823240 wikitext text/x-wiki == Who I am == My name is Ava, I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I enjoy..... 5xa71q03u92g0531ua3syryq46kbpgf 2823245 2823240 2026-08-20T01:34:59Z U3275940 3106402 /* Who I am */ 2823245 wikitext text/x-wiki == Who I am == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. == Book Chapter == My selected book chapter is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation Hygiene Motivation] and I am excited to learn more about motivation as I work on this assessment. ms2s3y1zq7oxg9pgd0qxlr20d1nginu 2823269 2823245 2026-08-20T01:42:37Z U3275940 3106402 2823269 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. In my free time, I enjoy going to pilates classes, weekend trips to the coast, baking, or binging my favourite TV shows at home :) == Book Chapter == My selected book chapter is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation Hygiene Motivation] and I am excited to learn more about motivation as I work on this assessment. == Social Contributions == ea501lko25ynddvi3oxfrfcjlpb9tgm 2823271 2823269 2026-08-20T01:43:20Z U3275940 3106402 2823271 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. In my free time, I enjoy going to pilates classes, weekend trips to the coast, baking, or binging my favourite TV shows at home :) == Book Chapter == My selected book chapter is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation Hygiene Motivation] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social Contributions == 3cyxclfqj63dv0y9l6kdjohfz6skan7 2823272 2823271 2026-08-20T01:43:49Z U3275940 3106402 2823272 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. In my free time, I enjoy going to pilates classes, weekend trips to the coast, baking, or binging my favourite TV shows at home :) == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation Hygiene Motivation] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == 6dby1kjwwflq2w4m9ug9luorroi4chp 2823282 2823272 2026-08-20T01:47:31Z U3275940 3106402 2823282 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking * Binging my favourite TV shows at home == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation Hygiene Motivation] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == 4osk4olkirhxn8lipcpworkk67sj4il 2823287 2823282 2026-08-20T01:48:54Z U3275940 3106402 2823287 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking * Binging my favourite TV shows at home == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter is [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation Hygiene Motivation] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == 3sd9msj2luscq2u3q9o6dvaxrc0zata 2823289 2823287 2026-08-20T01:49:55Z U3275940 3106402 2823289 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking * Binging my favourite TV shows at home == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the Motivation and Emotion unit is [[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation| Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == oyhp9n6d6c4sk1c6dpjax1uwnsxzhrk 2823291 2823289 2026-08-20T01:50:11Z U3275940 3106402 2823291 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking * Binging my favourite TV shows at home == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the Motivation and Emotion unit is [[https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene_motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == 04jdz9i9p5lqmattnfljj2p03smm1jd 2823310 2823291 2026-08-20T01:53:00Z U3275940 3106402 2823310 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am currently in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == 5b6o66r1oilcpvd5djcc0ovz7589w6b 2823311 2823310 2026-08-20T01:53:25Z U3275940 3106402 2823311 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am currently studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout this assessment. == Social contributions == gxm02vpusltiual3xzixi1of08jgjen 2823315 2823311 2026-08-20T01:53:52Z U3275940 3106402 2823315 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am currently studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. In my free time, I enjoy: * Pilates * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout the completion of this assessment. == Social contributions == qiydypkeaa05viec0epwue5e9y1h4y4 2823331 2823315 2026-08-20T02:04:59Z U3275940 3106402 2823331 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am currently studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. [[File:Malua Bay, New South Wales 2020.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''Figure 1.''' A weekend getaway to Malua Bay is fun and relaxing!]] In my free time, I enjoy: * [[w:_pilates|Pilates]] * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout the completion of this assessment. == Social contributions == o1cfh0fkyzwqkivenrfon2zgxxn34oq 2823358 2823331 2026-08-20T02:18:04Z U3275940 3106402 /* Social contributions */ 2823358 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am currently studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. [[File:Malua Bay, New South Wales 2020.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''Figure 1.''' A weekend getaway to Malua Bay is fun and relaxing!]] In my free time, I enjoy: * [[w:_pilates|Pilates]] * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout the completion of this assessment. == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FConsumer_emotion_measurement&diff=2823348&oldid=2823345 Added APA formatting to an 'Inside Out' image] m0r6xkr70ztv31fh0i7cz0hzn0w4o42 2823367 2823358 2026-08-20T02:22:49Z U3275940 3106402 /* Social contributions */ 2823367 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am currently studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. [[File:Malua Bay, New South Wales 2020.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''Figure 1.''' A weekend getaway to Malua Bay is fun and relaxing!]] In my free time, I enjoy: * [[w:_pilates|Pilates]] * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout the completion of this assessment. == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FConsumer_emotion_measurement&diff=2823348&oldid=2823345 Added APA formatting to an 'Inside Out' image] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation#A potential reading for you to explore|Created a discussion on someone's page to provide them with a helpful resource]] skwbxu91pl6s0e2fhtgb5erm6kvzy43 2823375 2823367 2026-08-20T02:32:02Z U3275940 3106402 /* Social contributions */ 2823375 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/ava-morrison-929474347/ Ava], I am currently studying a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2026 Bachelor of Science in Psychology] and am in my third and final year. I am hoping to complete my Honours and Masters to become a clinical psychologist. I work as a part-time Program Coordinator at a small, female-led, business that focuses on leadership and capability development for the public sector. I find it incredibly valuable and rewarding to work in this space and constantly learn from successful women in business. [[File:Malua Bay, New South Wales 2020.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''Figure 1.''' A weekend getaway to Malua Bay is fun and relaxing!]] In my free time, I enjoy: * [[w:_pilates|Pilates]] * Weekend trips to the coast * Baking == Book chapter I am working on == My selected book chapter for the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Hygiene motivation|Hygiene Motivation]] and I am excited to learn more about what motivates hygiene among individuals throughout the completion of this assessment. == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FConsumer_emotion_measurement&diff=2823348&oldid=2823345 Added APA formatting to an 'Inside Out' image] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation#A potential reading for you to explore|Created a discussion on someone's page to provide them with a helpful resource]] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806187 Contributed to class discussion on what we want to learn about] 39nv7vnl4gcfi13wdqpdtcfuv68057s 2 331304 2823247 2026-08-20T01:39:25Z StretchBeyond 3105744 Created page with "'''<span lang="de" dir="ltr">Test write a page about me test language translation</span>'''" 2823247 wikitext text/x-wiki '''<span lang="de" dir="ltr">Test write a page about me test language translation</span>''' 8keviv0ebhg9s7pmax812ou77yyj5p3 2 331305 2823248 2026-08-20T01:39:25Z U3239236 3106753 Created page with "I am studying a bachelor of science in psychology" 2823248 wikitext text/x-wiki I am studying a bachelor of science in psychology 9pwm8cazutp2deqhpg6y0qvj4vwwf6k 2823251 2823248 2026-08-20T01:39:56Z U3239236 3106753 2823251 wikitext text/x-wiki I am studying a bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra s339o2dngwe6eengp64bz985ig3ovhw 2823260 2823251 2026-08-20T01:41:18Z U3239236 3106753 started page and added description 2823260 wikitext text/x-wiki I am studying a Bachelor of science in Psychology at the University of Canberra qcxqakh03ms93cq1tkause1f71381us 2823299 2823260 2026-08-20T01:52:19Z U3239236 3106753 added links 2823299 wikitext text/x-wiki == ABOUT ME == I am studying for a Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [http://Canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] [[Motivation and emotion]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Gymming * Painting * Trying different cuisines == Book Chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == h9od3et7l927sr7rwzkmajy0fvipc7x 2823346 2823299 2026-08-20T02:14:32Z U3239236 3106753 2823346 wikitext text/x-wiki == ABOUT ME == I am studying [[Motivation and emotion]] and studying at the [http://Canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] [[File:Old man reading newspaper early in the morning at Basantapur-IMG 6800.jpg|thumb|375x375px|'''Figure 1.''' Reading is fun]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Gymming * Painting * Trying different cuisines == Book Chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing|Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Wellbeing]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&diff=2821919&oldid=2821918 Removed unnecessary info] 6uth5i4c9h1uwluohcxzjx15hm3ipp2 2823360 2823346 2026-08-20T02:19:04Z U3239236 3106753 /* Social contributions */ 2823360 wikitext text/x-wiki == ABOUT ME == I am studying [[Motivation and emotion]] and studying at the [http://Canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] [[File:Old man reading newspaper early in the morning at Basantapur-IMG 6800.jpg|thumb|375x375px|'''Figure 1.''' Reading is fun]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Gymming * Painting * Trying different cuisines == Book Chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing|Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Wellbeing]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&diff=2821919&oldid=2821918 Removed unnecessary info] # Suggested chapters # Started a discussion about my chapter topic m7979ev3m7w14nn3c0d236ii1nkslhm 2 331306 2823250 2026-08-20T01:39:30Z Revial76 3106977 Created page with "I am Ben. I'm currently doing a Bachelor of Psychology at UC." 2823250 wikitext text/x-wiki I am Ben. I'm currently doing a Bachelor of Psychology at UC. kqogbs50jyfrbyse6sptm3uo4ujbvoi 2823252 2823250 2026-08-20T01:40:08Z Revial76 3106977 2823252 wikitext text/x-wiki I am '''Ben'''. I'm currently doing a ''Bachelor of Psychology'' at UC. lr90b8x0gpl45lwxl7i4xz4x80fdb4w 2823268 2823252 2026-08-20T01:41:56Z Revial76 3106977 2823268 wikitext text/x-wiki I am '''Ben'''. I'm currently doing a ''Bachelor of Psychology'' at UC doing [[motivation and emotion]]. cluxqu5ggvn4sv8am6kek9fttlxm7uy 2823276 2823268 2026-08-20T01:44:43Z Revial76 3106977 2823276 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Ben'''. I'm currently doing a ''Bachelor of Psychology'' at UC doing [[motivation and emotion]]. == Book chapter I'm working on == Ziggity zoo == Social Contributions == my IQ is two f4gvgt2gb7f6ncfdj55xh701gupm53p 2823292 2823276 2026-08-20T01:50:20Z Revial76 3106977 2823292 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Ben'''. I'm currently doing a ''Bachelor of Psychology'' at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] doing [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Being funny * Singing * Cooking * Gaming w my buddies *# Battlefield 6 *# League of Legends *# Marvel Rivals * Riftbound * Gym * Soccer * Musicals * My fishtank == Book chapter I'm working on == Ziggity zoo == Social Contributions == my IQ is two 2mvawq00gdoa9hqw3rzpuv4i0zir8ui 2823332 2823292 2026-08-20T02:05:41Z Revial76 3106977 2823332 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Ben'''. I'm currently doing a ''Bachelor of Psychology'' at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] doing [[motivation and emotion]]. [[File:League of Legends 2019 vector.svg|thumb|400x400px|'''Figure 1'''. A hobby that has dominated my free time ;-;]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Comedy|Being funny]] * [[w:Laufey_(singer)|Singing]] * [[w:Guy_Fieri|Cooking]] * Gaming w my buddies *# [[w:Battlefield_6|Battlefield 6]] *# [[w:League_of_Legends|League of Legends]] *# [[w:Marvel_Rivals|Marvel Rivals]] * [[w:Riftbound|Riftbound]] * [[w:Mike_Mentzer|Gym]] * [[w:Harry_Kane|Soccer]] * [[w:Frozen_(musical)|Musicals]] * My fishtank == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Automaticity in goal striving|Ziggity zoo]] == Social Contributions == my IQ is two 1vdlx9xtlu2qd9uro8jcmffrnjm71s3 2 331307 2823253 2026-08-20T01:40:42Z Honeybelle11 3108395 Created page with "Hey! I am a third-year Psychological Science student studying at the University of Canberra. I am here on wikversity for my Motivation and Emotion unit." 2823253 wikitext text/x-wiki Hey! I am a third-year Psychological Science student studying at the University of Canberra. I am here on wikversity for my Motivation and Emotion unit. n0vrecjlemo2qu9z1kjdck89ryi7lnx 2823308 2823253 2026-08-20T01:52:47Z Honeybelle11 3108395 Added titles and external links 2823308 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me :) == Hey! I am a third-year Psychological Science student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am here on Wikiversity for my [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. My hobbies: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Make-up and fashion * Playing sport * Trying new things and experiences * All things health and wellness == My Book Chapter == == Social Contributions == 6825fzfee8lfonfjbnk1na8x1nt5y9u 2823329 2823308 2026-08-20T02:04:46Z Honeybelle11 3108395 added an image 2823329 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me:) == Hey! I am a third-year Psychological Science student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am here on Wikiversity for my [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. [[File:Hiking trail to Biskupská kupa, Czechia.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 1. Walking in nature is a wonderful thing]] My hobbies: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Make-up and fashion * Playing sport * Trying new things and experiences * All things health and wellness == My Book Chapter == == Social Contributions == sb3s0k8b215zoffv7csc9z7jvhxc6wx 2823373 2823329 2026-08-20T02:27:20Z Honeybelle11 3108395 Added the link to my book chapter 2823373 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me:) == Hey! I am a third-year Psychological Science student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am here on Wikiversity for my [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit. [[File:Hiking trail to Biskupská kupa, Czechia.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Figure 1. Walking in nature is a wonderful thing]] My hobbies: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Make-up and fashion * Playing sport * Trying new things and experiences * All things health and wellness == My Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Neurobiology of love]] == Social Contributions == peety3hits2ab5nn7qeoqs71qke9cxb 2 331308 2823255 2026-08-20T01:41:10Z U3254168 3106320 Started page 2823255 wikitext text/x-wiki My name is Zoe Terrill. I am a third year student studying a Bachelor of Laws with a breadth major in Psychology at the University of Canberra. 9isi6qx6ikd7byc4yjuqozy4gzsbnfs 2823274 2823255 2026-08-20T01:44:27Z U3254168 3106320 Added headings 2823274 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == My name is Zoe Terrill. I am a third year student studying a Bachelor of Laws with a breadth major in Psychology at the University of Canberra. == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == sr8qbig0w1o8fjzok9hnm581q9x9cpk 2823303 2823274 2026-08-20T01:52:22Z U3254168 3106320 Added links 2823303 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == My name is Zoe Terrill. I am a third year student studying a Bachelor of Laws with a breadth major in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am currently undertaking the course [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include * Spending time with my cats * [[w:Crochet|Crocheting]] * Reading == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == q9av64uvpswtf6f0j1t3ubnf909bf1t 2823328 2823303 2026-08-20T02:04:16Z U3254168 3106320 Added images 2823328 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == [[File:Relaxed female domestic cat.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Cats are adorable companions.]] My name is Zoe Terrill. I am a third year student studying a Bachelor of Laws with a breadth major in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am currently undertaking the course [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Spending time with my cats * [[w:Crochet|Crocheting]] * Reading == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy and jury decision-making|Empathy and jury decision-making]] == Social contributions == eabklg6j8dlm7xo0y9j07rv8bd3uqsf 2823354 2823328 2026-08-20T02:16:33Z U3254168 3106320 /* Social contributions */ 2823354 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == [[File:Relaxed female domestic cat.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Cats are adorable companions.]] My name is Zoe Terrill. I am a third year student studying a Bachelor of Laws with a breadth major in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am currently undertaking the course [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Spending time with my cats * [[w:Crochet|Crocheting]] * Reading == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy and jury decision-making|Empathy and jury decision-making]] == Social contributions == # Edit someone's page # comment on someone's page # post on the discussion board ja8siro6dthbyktosdvjygtpw65914d 2823594 2823354 2026-08-20T08:19:45Z U3254168 3106320 added social contributions 2823594 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == [[File:Relaxed female domestic cat.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Cats are adorable companions.]] My name is Zoe Terrill. I am a third year student studying a Bachelor of Laws with a breadth major in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am currently undertaking the course [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Spending time with my cats * [[w:Crochet|Crocheting]] * Reading == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy and jury decision-making|Empathy and jury decision-making]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FFuture_orientation_and_criminal_behaviour&diff=2823593&oldid=2767961 Edit someone's page] # comment on someone's page # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456345 Post on the discussion board] oi8p5mr5fh5kcfryn4xraxw5if43dsw 2 331309 2823256 2026-08-20T01:41:11Z Jtneill 10242 Started page 2823256 wikitext text/x-wiki I am '''James Neill'''. I am teaching motivation and emotion at the University of Canberra. jv6r27hbidg8axz0iv52s9mdm5ohxo0 2823297 2823256 2026-08-20T01:52:17Z Jtneill 10242 Added links 2823297 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James Neill'''. I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Mountain_biking|Mountain biking]] * Gardening * Exploring outdoors *# Molonglo Valley *# South coast == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == 8u4hvzopwjvrddmfjkny10n36yuw0t1 2823321 2823297 2026-08-20T02:01:00Z Jtneill 10242 Added image 2823321 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James Neill'''. I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:Mountain Biking In Lenzerheide, Switzerland - 29591826245.jpg|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 1'''. Mountain biking is excellent exercise.]] * [[w:Mountain_biking|Mountain biking]] * Gardening * Exploring outdoors *# Molonglo Valley *# South coast == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] == Social contributions == 3cvv39kpq8aqfz660pcire5yy0898g3 2823350 2823321 2026-08-20T02:16:02Z Jtneill 10242 Added social contributions 2823350 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James Neill'''. I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:Mountain Biking In Lenzerheide, Switzerland - 29591826245.jpg|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure 1'''. Mountain biking is excellent exercise.]] * [[w:Mountain_biking|Mountain biking]] * Gardening * Exploring outdoors *# Molonglo Valley *# South coast == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2823334&oldid=2823061 Removed unnecessary info] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPerfectionism_and_procrastination&diff=2823343&oldid=2823221 Made a suggestion about other chapters] # S[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450 tarted discussion about my chapter topic] 3fb73kd4w0ranonben2a18k4thfh3cy 2 331310 2823257 2026-08-20T01:41:12Z E3297976 3106770 started page 2823257 wikitext text/x-wiki I am a second-year university study at the University of Canberra. I study a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and a Bachelor of Health Science. 2038eh72creryvucix7ylumrvs3hvc3 2823301 2823257 2026-08-20T01:52:21Z E3297976 3106770 added links 2823301 wikitext text/x-wiki == Get to know me == I am a second-year university study at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I study a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and a Bachelor of Health Science. Some of my hobbies inclide: * [[Running]] * Reading * [[w:Craft|Crafting]] * Going to the gym == My Book Chapter == == Social contributions == ne87bqndib3xapcxoovul0vt48jehny 2823324 2823301 2026-08-20T02:01:05Z E3297976 3106770 added picture 2823324 wikitext text/x-wiki == Get to know me == I am a second-year university study at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I study a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and a Bachelor of Health Science. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:Long Distance Runners, Ancient Greece, Amphora.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Artwork depicting long distance running]] * [[Running]] * Reading * [[w:Craft|Crafting]] * Going to the gym == My Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Breathing exercises and relaxation|Breathing exercises and relaxation]] == Social contributions == egv1joopte0mw7wrlecmv10jg85xd3p 2823496 2823324 2026-08-20T04:27:29Z E3297976 3106770 social contributions 2823496 wikitext text/x-wiki == Get to know me == I am a second-year university study at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I study a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and a Bachelor of Health Science. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:Long Distance Runners, Ancient Greece, Amphora.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Artwork depicting long distance running]] * [[Running]] * Reading * [[w:Craft|Crafting]] * Going to the gym == My Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Breathing exercises and relaxation|Breathing exercises and relaxation]] == Social contributions == # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Created a discussion board for my chapter] qqinxw1ddivxc3axudwosig6p6ccank 2 331311 2823258 2026-08-20T01:41:15Z U3283643 3106326 Started page 2823258 wikitext text/x-wiki I am a third year uni student in the '''Motivation and Emotion''' class, studying at the University of Canberra. fvujf5a650phzckx0qbk4jd80wlxxjs 2823302 2823258 2026-08-20T01:52:22Z U3283643 3106326 Added links 2823302 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year uni student in the '''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''' class, studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Travel|Traveling]] == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social Contributions == 8ijkz4oo6nibnply41f9jm37odv9o95 2823323 2823302 2026-08-20T02:01:05Z U3283643 3106326 Added image 2823323 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year uni student in the '''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''' class, studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:Noun 15537 ccElliotVerhaeren travel.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Traveling ]] * [[w:Travel|Traveling]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Interrogation and compliance|Interrogation and Compliance]] == Social Contributions == i4g87t2b5efvel03idfpmxno8gyvshf 2 331312 2823259 2026-08-20T01:41:17Z U3261236 3106976 Started page 2823259 wikitext text/x-wiki I am a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra. fl7janpolof94i73cndbkyzkoy2mbyf 2823307 2823259 2026-08-20T01:52:44Z U3261236 3106976 Editing started page 2823307 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Currently one of my units is about [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include: * [[Sewing]] * Reading * Swimming == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == 0qwidr16k5pmyv10cg50nz8la8vylhg 2823351 2823307 2026-08-20T02:16:12Z U3261236 3106976 added image 2823351 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a third year psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Currently one of my units is about [[motivation and emotion]]. Some of my hobbies include: [[File:13-11-02-olb-by-RalfR-03.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Reading is very enjoyable]] * [[Sewing]] * Reading * Swimming == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Motivations for using sex work services|Motivations for using sex work services]] == Social contributions == 97v9zax19kjb1fab76rg7g342h9kkh5 2 331313 2823261 2026-08-20T01:41:22Z Mim0502 3106283 started page 2823261 wikitext text/x-wiki I am Isabel Mercado. I am in my 3rd year studying a double degree in business/psych at the University of Canberra. I am a student in Motivation and Emotion. myfmmlv26morn0xghp6koiuww6ztuhb 2823304 2823261 2026-08-20T01:52:27Z Mim0502 3106283 Added links 2823304 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am Isabel Mercado. I am in my 3rd year studying a double degree in business/psych at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], and currently a student in the '''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''' unit. Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] == Book Chapter I'm Working On == == Social Contributions == 217aa0m2r5r3e62a600rnvvjto2vk7u 2823420 2823304 2026-08-20T03:18:07Z Mim0502 3106283 Added links, and 1 social contribution 2823420 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am Isabel Mercado. I am in my 3rd year studying a double degree in business/psych at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], and currently a student in the '''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''' unit. [[File:A reading lesson (1866), by Leon Basile Perrault.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Reading]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Machiavellian motivation|Machiavellian Motivation]] == Social Contributions == # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Interrogation and compliance|Provided Website Topic Links]] 0r5qdcmfpa7jn8r3w3vohfzrmu9ponm 2 331314 2823262 2026-08-20T01:41:25Z Ella Kay244 3107007 I made an opeaning statment 2823262 wikitext text/x-wiki I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying Motivation and Emotion at the university of Canberra. n5x4t44v8yozg8ayqlh65ri68kyd06l 2823300 2823262 2026-08-20T01:52:21Z Ella Kay244 3107007 added links 2823300 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ university of Canberra.] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == == Social Contributions == jto85dj82ne4rew5wzzixp2fpbw1n93 2823318 2823300 2026-08-20T01:55:59Z Ella Kay244 3107007 added link to book chapter 2823318 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ university of Canberra.] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and social media use|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] == Social Contributions == as17r4sop1xz4n5bqpz8kztshgl5rp1 2823325 2823318 2026-08-20T02:01:12Z Ella Kay244 3107007 added photo 2823325 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am a 3rd year student. Who is studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ university of Canberra.] My hobbies: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * rock climbing * cooking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] [[File:Abstract pattern on a tree stump.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1'''. tree rings]] == Social Contributions == 7tvccpzvpwkecs1nqv1nlk7766qi85t 2 331315 2823263 2026-08-20T01:41:28Z U3275992 3106315 Started page 2823263 wikitext text/x-wiki I am currently psychology student at the University of Canberra. 95veopn91r7qh78eveub2hw8zues1hh 2823306 2823263 2026-08-20T01:52:37Z U3275992 3106315 2823306 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == I am currently in the middle of completing my Bachelor's of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am taking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. Outside of my studies, you can find me: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Watching movies == Book Chapter: Irritability == == Social Contributions: == rzfx0snimbfr7bnj3f9zvht7q1u5dsw 2823317 2823306 2026-08-20T01:55:37Z U3275992 3106315 Including the link to my book chapter 2823317 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == I am currently in the middle of completing my Bachelor's of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am taking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. Outside of my studies, you can find me: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Watching movies == Book Chapter: Irritability == I am currently working on a book chapter called [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability|Irritability]]. == Social Contributions: == a3vyke7kepy7o756tu83tmckp4gle3g 2823322 2823317 2026-08-20T02:01:01Z U3275992 3106315 Added an image 2823322 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == I am currently in the middle of completing my Bachelor's of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am taking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. [[File:Part of a bookshelf containing books by ancient philosophers (1.1).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Reading is a great hobby ]] Outside of my studies, you can find me: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Watching movies == Book Chapter: Irritability == I am currently working on a book chapter called [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability|Irritability]]. == Social Contributions: == i00rtit88zwdvueos774qi7jt7xpbx7 2823340 2823322 2026-08-20T02:10:18Z U3275992 3106315 2823340 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == I am currently in the middle of completing my Bachelor's of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am taking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. [[File:Part of a bookshelf containing books by ancient philosophers (1.1).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Reading is a great hobby ]] Outside of my studies, you can find me: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Watching movies == Book Chapter: Irritability == I am currently working on a book chapter called [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability|Irritability]]. == Social Contributions: == # Put links to comparison pages here 7wcvos29tg9icai8tl33god9xgl5qvx 2823349 2823340 2026-08-20T02:15:47Z U3275992 3106315 /* Social Contributions: */ 2823349 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me: == I am currently in the middle of completing my Bachelor's of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am taking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. [[File:Part of a bookshelf containing books by ancient philosophers (1.1).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Reading is a great hobby ]] Outside of my studies, you can find me: * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * Watching movies == Book Chapter: Irritability == I am currently working on a book chapter called [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability|Irritability]]. == Social Contributions: == # Put links to comparison pages here # Also link to discussion forum dwx09mma8qsnthv8qvclybubwy84jjb 2 331316 2823264 2026-08-20T01:41:28Z U3068253 3106791 Started page 2823264 wikitext text/x-wiki I am a psychology student in my third year. I am taking a unit called 'motivation and emotion' at the University of Canberra. etal0qv2i52u0i7g1we2jfyb4urq7um 2823309 2823264 2026-08-20T01:52:52Z U3068253 3106791 added links 2823309 wikitext text/x-wiki == ABOUT ME == I am a psychology student in my third year. I am taking a unit called '[[motivation and emotion]]' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include * [[w:Writing_therapy|journaling]] * fitness ** yoga ** walking ** running ** hiking ** pilates == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == 0eradm408lriiq2iby85mwljp4aadub 2823319 2823309 2026-08-20T01:56:27Z U3068253 3106791 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ 2823319 wikitext text/x-wiki == ABOUT ME == I am a psychology student in my third year. I am taking a unit called '[[motivation and emotion]]' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include * [[w:Writing_therapy|journaling]] * fitness ** yoga ** walking ** running ** hiking ** pilates == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience|Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience]] == Social contributions == cn29zzar9s45o27yuq51vf0p6w4edor 2823362 2823319 2026-08-20T02:20:36Z U3068253 3106791 social contributions 2823362 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hiking trail to Biskupská kupa, Czechia.jpg|thumb|300x300px]] == ABOUT ME == I am a psychology student in my third year. I am taking a unit called '[[motivation and emotion]]' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies include * [[w:Writing_therapy|journaling]] * fitness ** yoga ** walking ** running ** hiking ** pilates == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience|Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience]] == Social contributions == # Removed okkfxz5gsorwyxre3bn85ml58hq6amm 2 331317 2823266 2026-08-20T01:41:34Z Katelyn Rod 3106860 Basic introduction and started page 2823266 wikitext text/x-wiki I am a third year studying at the University of Canberra and currently taking the unit Motivation and Emotion. oqowu4hdil95rq7l0xqh46mu4o26jm2 2823356 2823266 2026-08-20T02:17:42Z Katelyn Rod 3106860 making changes to user page and taking relevant notes for assignments 2823356 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == linking processes * internal link / page within Wikiversity *# highlight *# press the linking icon in the tool bar *# select desired link within the Wikiverity section * external link / outside of Wikiveristy *# copy link to desired site *# highlight desired text *# press the linking icon in the tool bar *# paste desired link into external site section look at wikimedia commons to find images == Book Chapter == Mental health first aid and helping behaviour need 3-6 headings for book chapter, subheadings are optional. Under each headings you want ~3 bullet points for each section (if there is a clear order then you can use a numbered list == Social Contributions == 3 different kinds of contributions (listed below), need link, date and time to contributions. # descriptions of edits made --> same you would leave after making an edit ## Click edit source and make an edit ## After making edits, click view history, click compare versions between most recent editions, copy link to compared versions and create an external link # commenting --> description of comment left ## Find a chapter you want to comment on, click on discussions, click add topic on the top right, write comment and then click add topic underneath comment ## highlight link, create an external link # uc discussions page --> description of discussion page ## either start or respond to a discussion post on the canvas site ## copy link to discussion page, create an external link f01j4humc1vj6q2kp5u1wui5fby0ui6 2823490 2823356 2026-08-20T04:12:44Z Katelyn Rod 3106860 Adding information and links to social contributions 2823490 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == linking processes * internal link / page within Wikiversity *# highlight *# press the linking icon in the tool bar *# select desired link within the Wikiverity section * external link / outside of Wikiveristy *# copy link to desired site *# highlight desired text *# press the linking icon in the tool bar *# paste desired link into external site section look at wikimedia commons to find images == Book Chapter == Mental health first aid and helping behaviour need 3-6 headings for book chapter, subheadings are optional. Under each headings you want ~3 bullet points for each section (if there is a clear order then you can use a numbered list == Social Contributions == 3 different kinds of contributions (listed below), need link, date and time to contributions. # descriptions of edits made --> same you would leave after making an edit ## Click edit source and make an edit ## After making edits, click view history, click compare versions between most recent editions, copy link to compared versions and create an external link # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Future orientation and criminal behaviour#c-Katelyn Rod-20260820040800-Recommendations for structuring|Commented an a previous book chapter, giving structure recommendations]] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455064 Replied to another persons discussion post on UCLearn] pd8wu4hr9nuqtc62knlbeqvkjjf0plg 2 331318 2823267 2026-08-20T01:41:40Z U3280251 3103739 Personal bio 2823267 wikitext text/x-wiki I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class Motivation and Emotion. 4vpwtsj09x47hr0n84nu4cfl0ni2o6k 2823284 2823267 2026-08-20T01:48:25Z U3280251 3103739 Updated bio 2823284 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. My research interests are: * The intersection between cognitive and computer science. * STEM Education * Motivation == Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter == == Social Contributions == q4egu42il0d4wxg6qa3lcdb3793gt6j 2823294 2823284 2026-08-20T01:50:27Z U3280251 3103739 Added University of Canberra 2823294 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My research interests are: * The intersection between cognitive and computer science. * STEM Education * Motivation == Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter == == Social Contributions == 1zdz26ek8kv912vfnq64k30ya7ql4tk 2823305 2823294 2026-08-20T01:52:29Z U3280251 3103739 Added links for cognitive science and computer science 2823305 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My research interests are: * The intersection between [[cognitive science]] and [[w:Computer_science|computer science]]. * STEM Education * Motivation == Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter == == Social Contributions == 111gn5dzrpjudjlyhqzbfod5jffemox 2823337 2823305 2026-08-20T02:08:11Z U3280251 3103739 Added Image for cognitive science 2823337 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My research interests are: * The intersection between [[cognitive science]] and [[w:Computer_science|computer science]]. * STEM Pedagogy * Motivation and Emotion [[File:Cognitive Science Hexagon.svg|left|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The interdisciplinary underpinnings of cognitive science.]] == Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation|Motivation for Lifelong Learning]] == Social Contributions == cba8ux9b9i9xfm11ji5obz59t5988f0 2823342 2823337 2026-08-20T02:11:44Z U3280251 3103739 Fixed formatting 2823342 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My research interests are: * The intersection between [[cognitive science]] and [[w:Computer_science|computer science]]. * STEM Pedagogy * Motivation and Emotion [[File:Cognitive Science Hexagon.svg|left|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The interdisciplinary underpinnings of cognitive science.]] == Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation|Motivation for Lifelong Learning]] == Social Contributions == 48wf6vfmqxf5akkej6o0vr6um704hc6 2823352 2823342 2026-08-20T02:16:16Z U3280251 3103739 Formatting 2823352 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == I am J Labuschagne, a student of Dr. James Neil's class [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].[[File:Cognitive Science Hexagon.svg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The interdisciplinary underpinnings of cognitive science.]]My research interests are: * The intersection between [[cognitive science]] and [[w:Computer_science|computer science]]. * STEM Pedagogy * Motivation and Emotion == Motivation and Emotion Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Lifelong learning motivation|Motivation for Lifelong Learning]] == Social Contributions == df2vvwdztsl32zj5ocq3usphfogy9xk 1 331319 2823288 2026-08-20T01:48:55Z StretchBeyond 3105744 /* Reference material */ new section 2823288 wikitext text/x-wiki == Reference material == Hi, this 2026 reference may be helpful for your chapter. Anna Stumps, Leah D. Church, Nadia Bounoua, Lea R. Dougherty, Jeffrey M. Spielberg, The relationship between youth irritability and neural circuitry related to emotion regulation, Journal of Affective Disorders, Volume 396, 2026,120846,ISSN 0165-0327,<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.120846</nowiki>.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032725022888 [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 01:48, 20 August 2026 (UTC) cflf5tetmykqujo3hqg8z4bb417ydrp 0 331320 2823338 2026-08-20T02:08:20Z U3283643 3106326 Created page with " {{subst:ME/BCS}}" 2823338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] iuy54gdak77sdxant6cmg7lw564b12s 2823389 2823338 2026-08-20T03:08:39Z U3283643 3106326 Changed title 2823389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 6a1t3kfnbwymwc9jlehajv2cyy17a19 2823616 2823389 2026-08-20T08:55:44Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interrogation and compliance:<br>What psychological processes influence resistance and compliance during interrogation?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social]] 75fz3ee43sk5bwrrwpk2vle58rixfka 1 331321 2823365 2026-08-20T02:21:22Z U3275940 3106402 /* A potential reading for you to explore */ new section 2823365 wikitext text/x-wiki == A potential reading for you to explore == Hi! I have previously looked at some resources related to this topic. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691822003316 Self-motivated and directed learning across the lifespan] may be of use to you :) [[User:U3275940|U3275940]] ([[User talk:U3275940|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3275940|contribs]]) 02:21, 20 August 2026 (UTC) l2nbrboqm6j9taddkqk4oj6q2gsh05s 0 331322 2823366 2026-08-20T02:22:25Z Honeybelle11 3108395 Created page with "<nowiki>{{subt:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>" 2823366 wikitext text/x-wiki <nowiki>{{subt:ME/BCS}}</nowiki> tdek2s6ijlqlkds0ryhqq6c0gtn8nvr 2823368 2823366 2026-08-20T02:23:02Z Honeybelle11 3108395 2823368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{subt:ME/BCS}} 5rxobp3sagmki4xuftniej895f1vmvk 2823369 2823368 2026-08-20T02:23:43Z Jtneill 10242 2823369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j8li5anz69acsf3t5a1r89bj88bwjol 2823617 2823369 2026-08-20T08:56:35Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823617 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] dl754dcooqo39elraiqz9g4rrq7kysq 2823618 2823617 2026-08-20T08:56:50Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823618 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] graco6ypizsnhqcclsgoqwq9qv1ah9q 1 331323 2823386 2026-08-20T03:04:48Z Mim0502 3106283 /* Website Topic Links */ new section 2823386 wikitext text/x-wiki == Website Topic Links == Hey! Here are some starter websites I thought might be beneficial to kickstart your book chapter : ) I thought these were really interesting when I was reading through. # [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352552520300372 The impact of interrogation stress on compliance and suggestibility in U.S. military special operations personnel] # [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/acp.3788 The link between suggestibility, compliance, and false confessions: A review using experimental and field studies] # [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19361610.2019.1621508 Examining the Causes and Consequences of Confession-Eliciting Tactics during Interrogation] [[User:Mim0502|Mim0502]] ([[User talk:Mim0502|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mim0502|contribs]]) 03:04, 20 August 2026 (UTC) qyxv9bpk9122kqki1n0g9yfj94yxtiq 2823411 2823386 2026-08-20T03:16:24Z Mim0502 3106283 /* Website Topic Links */ 2823411 wikitext text/x-wiki == Website Topic Links == Hey! Here are some starter websites I thought might be beneficial to kickstart your book chapter : ) I thought these were really interesting when I was reading through. # [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352552520300372 The impact of interrogation stress on compliance and suggestibility in U.S. military special operations personnel] # [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/acp.3788 The link between suggestibility, compliance, and false confessions: A review using experimental and field studies] # [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19361610.2019.1621508 Examining the Causes and Consequences of Confession-Eliciting Tactics during Interrogation] [[User:Mim0502|Mim0502]] ([[User talk:Mim0502|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mim0502|contribs]]) 03:04, 20 August 2026 (UTC)--[[User:Mim0502|Mim0502]] ([[User talk:Mim0502|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mim0502|contribs]]) 03:15, 20 August 2026 (UTC) t2p5e56dt6m8kykmicreo2lljujzd43 2 331324 2823391 2026-08-20T03:10:02Z Mort006 3106995 Created page with "'''William Morton''' Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creating and writer of everything I have created and written. Behold as I end this introduction. Regards, Will" 2823391 wikitext text/x-wiki '''William Morton''' Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creating and writer of everything I have created and written. Behold as I end this introduction. Regards, Will 6tovm25nrpivq6lw0b5stx2f001betb 2823393 2823391 2026-08-20T03:10:19Z Mort006 3106995 2823393 wikitext text/x-wiki '''William Morton''' Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. Behold as I end this introduction. Regards, Will 7whrcovbreghodwojib1xoupf01x7sy 2823400 2823393 2026-08-20T03:12:34Z Mort006 3106995 I added a comma 2823400 wikitext text/x-wiki '''William Morton''' Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will fs4z1spo6gupxsx0650b00tul1hk9du 2823418 2823400 2026-08-20T03:17:48Z Mort006 3106995 I added a link to motivation and emotion page 2823418 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''William Morton''' == Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. I am in [[motivation and emotion]] Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will 0lx8htfz2560waaph4tbndxm3g4nvmw 2823421 2823418 2026-08-20T03:19:19Z Mort006 3106995 2823421 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''William Morton''' == Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. I am in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will jmhm5t0c3ooicntpln6jsy8usltfj10 2823425 2823421 2026-08-20T03:20:02Z Mort006 3106995 2823425 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''William Morton''' == Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. I like [[w:Skiing|skiing]] I am in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will 10zrf3aq7smzpcek5gyr852wpyf0b33 2823448 2823425 2026-08-20T03:30:08Z Mort006 3106995 2823448 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''William Morton''' == Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. I like [[w:Skiing|skiing]] [[File:Thunder Ridge Ski Area Terrain Park 08.jpg|thumb|398x398px|'''Figure 1.''' ''William on the slopes,'' 2015]] I am in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will kzzn4iuj243tn1m2jwwzqa2upfal1ay 2823471 2823448 2026-08-20T03:48:03Z Mort006 3106995 2823471 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''William Morton''' == Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. I like [[w:Skiing|skiing]] [[File:Thunder Ridge Ski Area Terrain Park 08.jpg|thumb|398x398px|'''Figure 1.''' ''William on the slopes,'' 2015]] I am in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will Notes for topic development do the 3 types of social development # Direct edit # offered resource or added a comment # link to a discussion post: uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics t31est2tuzjed5dlvfodx4jgd8lhyio 2823480 2823471 2026-08-20T03:55:44Z Mort006 3106995 /* William Morton */ added tips about making the topic development 2823480 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''William Morton''' == Hello to those who have the privilege of reading this, I am William, creator and writer of everything I have created and written. I like [[w:Skiing|skiing]] [[File:Thunder Ridge Ski Area Terrain Park 08.jpg|thumb|398x398px|'''Figure 1.''' ''William on the slopes,'' 2015]] I am in [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] Behold, as I end this introduction. Regards, Will Notes for topic development do the 3 types of social development # Direct edit # offered resource or added a comment # link to a discussion post: uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics cite 6 references in the key points and add them to the reference list overview: brief introduction to the topic, add 3-6 questions relevant to the topic, try to use the overview questions to match up with the headings or titles. learning feature: try to make the chapter more interactive or more engaging for a reader cnl9pdsmyxi06xyjsophndnmojcqp6q 2 331325 2823395 2026-08-20T03:11:39Z J.M.A Watson 3106772 Created page with "My name is James. I am a student at the University of Canberra and I am studying psychology, majoring in counselling. It is a lot of fun and I enjoy it. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. I love helping people to solve and overcome their issues and problems and how they can live better lives!" 2823395 wikitext text/x-wiki My name is James. I am a student at the University of Canberra and I am studying psychology, majoring in counselling. It is a lot of fun and I enjoy it. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. I love helping people to solve and overcome their issues and problems and how they can live better lives! 526v89fl1lhb5wmygyg8aaofg2aerid 2823406 2823395 2026-08-20T03:13:55Z J.M.A Watson 3106772 2823406 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is James. I am a student at the University of Canberra and I am studying psychology, majoring in counselling. It is a lot of fun and I enjoy it. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. I love helping people to solve and overcome their issues and problems and how they can live better lives! lo8t1vu8d4k2qtuidoakkdnx2g5menl 2823424 2823406 2026-08-20T03:19:49Z J.M.A Watson 3106772 2823424 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is James. I am a student at the University of Canberra and I am studying psychology, majoring in counselling. It is a lot of fun and I enjoy it. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. I love helping people to solve and overcome their issues and problems and how they can live better lives! I am currently writing a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|chapter in a book]] about [[motivation and emotion]] at the University of Canberra. 6r3ooxbmybi2y0t56mi5ibycq0eg11t 2823437 2823424 2026-08-20T03:24:54Z J.M.A Watson 3106772 2823437 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is James. I am a student at the University of Canberra and I am studying psychology, majoring in counselling. It is a lot of fun and I enjoy it. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. I love helping people to solve and overcome their issues and problems and how they can live better lives! I am currently writing a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Volunteer counsellor motivation|chapter]] in a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|book]] about [[motivation and emotion]] at the University of Canberra. ki77rdlsfmubnq0mco88hkle66b9lwb 2823440 2823437 2026-08-20T03:27:45Z J.M.A Watson 3106772 2823440 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:University of Canberra.jpg|thumb|One of the entrances to the University of Canberra]] My name is James. I am a student at the University of Canberra and I am studying psychology, majoring in counselling. It is a lot of fun and I enjoy it. I'm hoping to be able do school counselling with high school students. I love helping people to solve and overcome their issues and problems and how they can live better lives! I am currently writing a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Volunteer counsellor motivation|chapter]] in a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|book]] about [[motivation and emotion]] at the University of Canberra. ex7asu0518jnfdl3ta8ql1rg8594va1 2 331326 2823396 2026-08-20T03:11:52Z U3292769 3106878 Created page with "== About me == I am James, a 3rd year psychology student studying ''Motivation and Emotion'' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''. Some of my hobbies are: * Hiking and nature * Photography and videography * Travelling! == Book chapter I'm working on == Excitement as an Emotion" 2823396 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am James, a 3rd year psychology student studying ''Motivation and Emotion'' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''. Some of my hobbies are: * Hiking and nature * Photography and videography * Travelling! == Book chapter I'm working on == Excitement as an Emotion n15qw5bpv1t43fy58t5las7yejimyxl 2823419 2823396 2026-08-20T03:17:49Z U3292769 3106878 Added links and Social Contribution header. 2823419 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James''', a 3rd year psychology student studying ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''. Some of my hobbies are: * Hiking and nature * Photography and videography * Travelling! == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Excitement as an emotion|Excitement as an Emotion]] == Social Contributions == # jfy4hs4rvy0wwcv73nb2fwgqhvogjaz 2823430 2823419 2026-08-20T03:21:59Z U3292769 3106878 Added more links to hobbies. 2823430 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James''', a 3rd year psychology student studying ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''. Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Hiking|Hiking]] and nature * [[w:Photography|Photography]] and [[w:Videography|videography]] * Travelling! == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Excitement as an emotion|Excitement as an Emotion]] == Social Contributions == # hiaop1rf30ggsv090ir1wpjcbsm80i2 2823447 2823430 2026-08-20T03:29:57Z U3292769 3106878 Added image. 2823447 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Hiking trails in Walyunga National Park, September 2024 02.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Hiking trail in Walyunga National Park]] I am '''James''', a 3rd year psychology student studying ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''. Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Hiking|Hiking]] and nature * [[w:Photography|Photography]] and [[w:Videography|videography]] * Travelling! == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Excitement as an emotion|Excitement as an Emotion]] == Social Contributions == # 3scwoq0p2vk37p4c1126sqlifz0us6r 2823475 2823447 2026-08-20T03:51:16Z U3292769 3106878 Added 1st Social contribution 2823475 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Hiking trails in Walyunga National Park, September 2024 02.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Hiking trail in Walyunga National Park]] I am '''James''', a 3rd year psychology student studying ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''. Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Hiking|Hiking]] and nature * [[w:Photography|Photography]] and [[w:Videography|videography]] * Travelling! == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Excitement as an emotion|Excitement as an Emotion]] == Social Contributions == #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBasal_ganglia_and_motivation&diff=2823470&oldid=2740812 03:46, 20 August 2026 U3292769 - Added title and subtitle (for book chapter: Basal ganglia and motivation)] fdwoqt8d8254qove40hg2kmfnnbzu9u 2 331327 2823397 2026-08-20T03:11:58Z U3143751 3106785 Updated introduction and included links to Motivation and emotion and the university of Canberra page 2823397 wikitext text/x-wiki I am '''Mitchel Swann'''. I am a third year [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies are: * Climbing/bouldering * Reading * Video games * Boardgames ** Dungeons and Dragons kwufgqnewoz9vvbsdr7wnzczk2svr0k 2823413 2823397 2026-08-20T03:17:05Z U3143751 3106785 Included new headings and hyperlink to book chapter topic 2823413 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Mitchel Swann'''. I am a third year [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. === Hobbies === Some of my hobbies are: * Climbing/bouldering * Reading * Video games * Boardgames ** Dungeons and Dragons == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion]] == Social Contributions == ktjz9fkxwcqmyyp4eg0vvce6zuv44yg 2823427 2823413 2026-08-20T03:20:54Z U3143751 3106785 2823427 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Mitchel Swann'''. I am a third year [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. === Hobbies === Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Bouldering|Climbing/bouldering]] * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * [[w:Video_game|Video games]] * [[w:Board_game|Boardgames]] ** [[w:Dungeons_&_Dragons|Dungeons and Dragons]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion]] == Social Contributions == dr1dkd4609k5e3db0p4fwq5q7gxdymd 2823444 2823427 2026-08-20T03:29:23Z U3143751 3106785 added image 2823444 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Mitchel Swann'''. I am a third year [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. === Hobbies === [[File:Man bouldering at The Hive, in Winnipeg, Manitoba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 1'''. Bouldering is good exercise.]] Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Bouldering|Climbing/bouldering]] * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * [[w:Video_game|Video games]] * [[w:Board_game|Boardgames]] ** [[w:Dungeons_&_Dragons|Dungeons and Dragons]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion]] == Social Contributions == bsvxq2ibngeyrf7hnxsb923ef0a5eir 2823462 2823444 2026-08-20T03:36:44Z U3143751 3106785 /* Social Contributions */ 2823462 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Mitchel Swann'''. I am a third year [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. === Hobbies === [[File:Man bouldering at The Hive, in Winnipeg, Manitoba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 1'''. Bouldering is good exercise.]] Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Bouldering|Climbing/bouldering]] * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * [[w:Video_game|Video games]] * [[w:Board_game|Boardgames]] ** [[w:Dungeons_&_Dragons|Dungeons and Dragons]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2823458&oldid=2823452 Added heading and subheading] 10ueegu4t0syle0xqr453jftwtuqve8 2823501 2823462 2026-08-20T04:35:15Z U3143751 3106785 /* Social Contributions */ included new links 2823501 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''Mitchel Swann'''. I am a third year [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. === Hobbies === [[File:Man bouldering at The Hive, in Winnipeg, Manitoba.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 1'''. Bouldering is good exercise.]] Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Bouldering|Climbing/bouldering]] * [[w:Reading|Reading]] * [[w:Video_game|Video games]] * [[w:Board_game|Boardgames]] ** [[w:Dungeons_&_Dragons|Dungeons and Dragons]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion|Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdaptive_versus_maladaptive_self-reflection&diff=2823494&oldid=2823481 Adjusted title casing to match Motivation and Emotion book 2026] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection#Suggested resources|Left a comment suggesting a resource to use]] # insert information about discussion forum contribution orrj2k939gpw2736b32b5v3ew81dcrv 2 331328 2823398 2026-08-20T03:12:18Z Jtneill 10242 Started page 2823398 wikitext text/x-wiki I am '''James Neill.''' I am teaching motivation and emotion at the University of Canberra. Some of my hobbies are: * Mountain biking * Gardening *# Veggies *# Fruit trees * Exploring outdoors jtv5uthkg3n5elcf5enrz2797jbhpyx 2823432 2823398 2026-08-20T03:22:58Z Jtneill 10242 Added links 2823432 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James Neill.''' I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Mountain_biking|Mountain biking]] * Gardening *# Veggies *# Fruit trees * Exploring outdoors == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and stigma]] == Social contributions == dx5hweh9njh5vmv72x342cko10slk73 2823441 2823432 2026-08-20T03:29:13Z Jtneill 10242 Added image 2823441 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James Neill.''' I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. [[File:Mountain Biking In Lenzerheide, Switzerland - 29591826245.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1'''. Mountain biking is good exercise.]] Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Mountain_biking|Mountain biking]] * Gardening *# Veggies *# Fruit trees * Exploring outdoors == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and stigma]] == Social contributions == nmx19tqy87ztlr6sf9bsre5rd4kmbvn 2823469 2823441 2026-08-20T03:45:35Z Jtneill 10242 /* Social contributions */ Added 3 2823469 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am '''James Neill.''' I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. [[File:Mountain Biking In Lenzerheide, Switzerland - 29591826245.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1'''. Mountain biking is good exercise.]] Some of my hobbies are: * [[w:Mountain_biking|Mountain biking]] * Gardening *# Veggies *# Fruit trees * Exploring outdoors == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mindsets and stigma|Mindsets and stigma]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAwe_and_nature&diff=2823455&oldid=2823092 Added title] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Awe and nature|Offered resource]] # [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558 Started a discussion about my chapter] s6nubszsevloq8416g8pc99xf8tln8a 2 331329 2823399 2026-08-20T03:12:22Z U3286643 3106304 Started editing personal page during class. 2823399 wikitext text/x-wiki I am Garrett. I'm a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra, currently (semester 2 2026) enrolled in the course Motivation and Emotion. Some of my interests include: * Fantasy and sci-fi literature * Guitar * Basketball 4zfaligsueccq1u77a00q6shkf8welh 2823433 2823399 2026-08-20T03:23:12Z U3286643 3106304 2823433 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Garrett. I'm a third year psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], enrolled in the 2026 Semester 2 course [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. Some of my interests include: * Fantasy and sci-fi literature - my favourite author is [[w:Brandon_Sanderson|Brandon Sanderson]]. * Guitar * Basketball == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Getting started|Getting started]] == Social contributions == p6jamwhxrhy06h1t49j4l2otj4alfj4 2823446 2823433 2026-08-20T03:29:46Z U3286643 3106304 2823446 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Garrett. I'm a third year psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], enrolled in the 2026 Semester 2 course [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. [[File:Lebron james 76ers.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Lebron James is a current player in the National Basketball Association.]] Some of my interests include: * Fantasy and sci-fi literature - my favourite author is [[w:Brandon_Sanderson|Brandon Sanderson]]. * Guitar * Basketball == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Getting started|Getting started]] == Social contributions == sk4er2vphgkyjy453y0jhhxcgo79cdd 2823450 2823446 2026-08-20T03:31:06Z U3286643 3106304 2823450 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Brandon Sanderson at MCM Comic Con London 22 May 2026 03.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Brandon Sanderson]] My name is Garrett. I'm a third year psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], enrolled in the 2026 Semester 2 course [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. Some of my interests include: * Fantasy and sci-fi literature - my favourite author is [[w:Brandon_Sanderson|Brandon Sanderson]]. * Guitar * Basketball == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Getting started|Getting started]] == Social contributions == i8ok9oonk2dm7bncx8jv099e2vfjme2 2 331330 2823401 2026-08-20T03:12:48Z TheHutt02 3106996 Created page with "My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the University of Canberra undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Snowboarding * Tennis * Running * Weight Lifting * Co..." 2823401 wikitext text/x-wiki My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the University of Canberra undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Snowboarding * Tennis * Running * Weight Lifting * Computer Games eitpsxxkgbw0dyzy1lc73v5dd8yfawj 2823405 2823401 2026-08-20T03:13:44Z TheHutt02 3106996 2823405 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the University of Canberra undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Snowboarding * Tennis * Running * Weight Lifting * Computer Games ne9v8if9nlg4y295oh543tuetseoc5h 2823408 2823405 2026-08-20T03:15:13Z TheHutt02 3106996 /* About me */ 2823408 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the University of Canberra undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. Some of my hobbies include: * Snowboarding * Tennis * Running * Weight Lifting * Computer Games === Social Contributions: === f6qa0h8u2gp6paanhbngaa002h0dw16 2823457 2823408 2026-08-20T03:34:03Z TheHutt02 3106996 added image 2823457 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/study-at-uc/fees-and-costs?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=broad+match&utm_content=fees&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7ol1O1b3MvOoiVyud3k8qYbsW_jZSYvIH7frrusAycqTV5FQG_UUDRoCZDEQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793506363097!b!!g!!canberra%20university%20fees!20950774508!160733890311&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950774508&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtSqxRjhI7_V9DA-TxXE_SRD&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7ol1O1b3MvOoiVyud3k8qYbsW_jZSYvIH7frrusAycqTV5FQG_UUDRoCZDEQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. [[File:2020-01-18 Snowboarding at the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics – Women's Slopestyle – Final – 2nd run (Martin Rulsch) 045.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Do a cool trick!]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * [[w:Tennis|Tennis]] * [[w:Running|Running]] * [[w:Weightlifting|Weight Lifting]] * [[w:Video_game|Computer Games]] == Social Contributions: == j0l7ilwgtf07zwfblrkq1gk0qc2724d 2823478 2823457 2026-08-20T03:53:53Z TheHutt02 3106996 /* Social Contributions: */ 2823478 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/study-at-uc/fees-and-costs?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&utm_term=broad+match&utm_content=fees&ef_id=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7ol1O1b3MvOoiVyud3k8qYbsW_jZSYvIH7frrusAycqTV5FQG_UUDRoCZDEQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793506363097!b!!g!!canberra%20university%20fees!20950774508!160733890311&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=20950774508&gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtSqxRjhI7_V9DA-TxXE_SRD&gclid=CjwKCAjwqJXUBhBNEiwA8BgG7ol1O1b3MvOoiVyud3k8qYbsW_jZSYvIH7frrusAycqTV5FQG_UUDRoCZDEQAvD_BwE University of Canberra] undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. [[File:2020-01-18 Snowboarding at the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics – Women's Slopestyle – Final – 2nd run (Martin Rulsch) 045.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Do a cool trick!]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * [[w:Tennis|Tennis]] * [[w:Running|Running]] * [[w:Weightlifting|Weight Lifting]] * [[w:Video_game|Computer Games]] == Social Contributions: == # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Building therapeutic alliance|Added template - first edit]] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Basal ganglia and motivation#Social contribution comment|Added Discussion forum, named social contribution comment, added a comment - first edit in discussion]] 8qzgwj4xlglz4gaa6ta43nutac66vd5 2823612 2823478 2026-08-20T08:51:18Z Jtneill 10242 Tidy 2823612 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Michael, I'm a 3rd year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] undergoing a bachelors or Human Movement and Psychology. One of my units this semester is called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. [[File:2020-01-18 Snowboarding at the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics – Women's Slopestyle – Final – 2nd run (Martin Rulsch) 045.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' Do a cool trick!]] Some of my hobbies include: * [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]] * [[w:Tennis|Tennis]] * [[w:Running|Running]] * [[w:Weightlifting|Weight Lifting]] * [[w:Video_game|Computer Games]] == Book chapter I'm working on == I am writing a Wikiversity page on the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation|Extended process model of emotional regulation]]. == Social Contributions == # [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Building therapeutic alliance|Added template - first edit]] # [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Basal ganglia and motivation#Social contribution comment|Added Discussion forum, named social contribution comment, added a comment - first edit in discussion]] cmd21a6e58c4tpdopg6nc7qlvtpmdln 2 331331 2823403 2026-08-20T03:12:57Z U3211150 3106672 Created page with "In a dream world I would marry a man that is a blend of Aragorn from LOTR and Trevor from Castlevania." 2823403 wikitext text/x-wiki In a dream world I would marry a man that is a blend of Aragorn from LOTR and Trevor from Castlevania. oxnte1eqkbye6i7sf4orxx4606pdo2h 2823410 2823403 2026-08-20T03:16:10Z U3211150 3106672 2823410 wikitext text/x-wiki == Fun Fact == My future husband will be a blend of Aragorn from Lord Of The Rings and Trevor from Castlevania. == Book Chapter == == Social Contributions == dvnoemfd00c0ax8iux00ety0yxquc24 2823439 2823410 2026-08-20T03:27:29Z U3211150 3106672 2823439 wikitext text/x-wiki == Fun Fact == My future husband will be a blend of Aragorn from Lord Of The Rings and Trevor from Castlevania. == Book Chapter == University Assessment for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection|Motivation and Emotion]] unit at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|yipee learning]] == Social Contributions == ryubqiu6u0jvzawyh0wz916yd0tit5m 2823443 2823439 2026-08-20T03:29:21Z U3211150 3106672 2823443 wikitext text/x-wiki == Fun Fact == My future husband will be a blend of Aragorn from Lord Of The Rings and Trevor from Castlevania. == Book Chapter == University Assessment for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection|Motivation and Emotion]] unit at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|yipee learning|border|left]] == Social Contributions == qtd65xlhq6pq85d9be1ki7udwps556a 2823463 2823443 2026-08-20T03:38:10Z U3211150 3106672 2823463 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My future husband will be a blend of Aragorn from Lord Of The Rings and Trevor from Castlevania. == Book Chapter == University Assessment for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection|Motivation and Emotion]] unit at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|yipee learning|border|left]] == Social Contributions == scco6e9odpofcdvwdbfbrccbns2r6dz 2823520 2823463 2026-08-20T05:09:17Z U3211150 3106672 2823520 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My future husband will be a blend of Aragorn from Lord Of The Rings and Trevor Belmont from Castlevania. == Book Chapter == University Assessment for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection|Motivation and Emotion]] unit at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|yipee learning|border|left]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2823516&oldid=2823458 Edited title casing to match 2026 table of contents] jhr3692etg2uakee6qhby2nku75v0d6 2823529 2823520 2026-08-20T05:23:36Z U3211150 3106672 2823529 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == My future husband will be a blend of Aragorn from Lord Of The Rings and Trevor Belmont from Castlevania. == Book Chapter == University Assessment for [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection|Motivation and Emotion]] unit at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|yipee learning|border|left]] == Social Contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2823516&oldid=2823458 Edited title casing to match 2026 table of contents] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_fatigue_and_emotional_exhaustion&diff=2823527&oldid=2823472 Commented article suggestion] pjkddtzpohqt0wgsra4tbtbn00k7z5v 2 331332 2823404 2026-08-20T03:13:11Z U3275984 3106752 Added some basics about me 2823404 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am Holly, a third year psychology student studying motivation and emotion at the University of Canberra. Some of my hobbies are: * Reading * Crochet * Gaming *# Stardew Valley *# Slime Rancher *# Spider-Man llit75qt0pgt7fwso1czbj1yoi62l2q 2823417 2823404 2026-08-20T03:17:30Z U3275984 3106752 Added 2 new sections and motivation and emotion link 2823417 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am Holly, a third year psychology student studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the University of Canberra. Some of my hobbies are: * Reading * Crochet * Gaming *# Stardew Valley *# Slime Rancher *# Spider-Man == Book chapter I'm working on == Charismatic leadership and follower motivation - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? == Social contributions == <nowiki>*</nowiki>social contributions go here* pgh8yqen2ayqoj7qckn3b4fjhcrhyd3 2823431 2823417 2026-08-20T03:22:40Z U3275984 3106752 Added links to Wikipedia pages of each game 2823431 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am Holly, a third year psychology student studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. Some of my hobbies are: * Reading * Crochet * Gaming *# [[w:Stardew_Valley|Stardew Valley]] *# [[w:Slime_Rancher|Slime Rancher]] *# [[w:Marvel's_Spider-Man|Spider-Man]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation|Charismatic leadership and follower motivation]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? == Social contributions == <nowiki>*</nowiki>social contributions go here* 6s3n9xga0jem674ot9n674f7yfdom8i 2823460 2823431 2026-08-20T03:34:56Z U3275984 3106752 Image added, may be removed later 2823460 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am Holly, a third year psychology student studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. [[File:DualShock 4.jpg|thumb|155x155px|'''Figure 1:''' PS4 controller]] Some of my hobbies are: * Reading * Crochet * Gaming *# [[w:Stardew_Valley|Stardew Valley]] *# [[w:Slime_Rancher|Slime Rancher]] *# [[w:Marvel's_Spider-Man|Spider-Man]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation|Charismatic leadership and follower motivation]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? == Social contributions == <nowiki>*</nowiki>social contributions go here* firnruqvb5w6r71bnt062mymihlx7wx 2823477 2823460 2026-08-20T03:53:01Z U3275984 3106752 First social contribution added 2823477 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == I am Holly, a third year psychology student studying [[motivation and emotion]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. [[File:DualShock 4.jpg|thumb|155x155px|'''Figure 1:''' PS4 controller]] Some of my hobbies are: * Reading * Crochet * Gaming *# [[w:Stardew_Valley|Stardew Valley]] *# [[w:Slime_Rancher|Slime Rancher]] *# [[w:Marvel's_Spider-Man|Spider-Man]] == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation|Charismatic leadership and follower motivation]] - How does charismatic leadership inspire follower motivation? == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAlcohol_use_for_emotion_regulation&diff=2823474&oldid=2821816 Added title and subtitle] # *feedback* # *discussion post* dfjo5v1x65fot0b03ky8cr38dgw9z7m 2 331333 2823416 2026-08-20T03:17:22Z Vivekidid 3108570 Created blank page 2823416 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 331334 2823423 2026-08-20T03:19:39Z U3284040 3106549 Started Page 2823423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j8li5anz69acsf3t5a1r89bj88bwjol 2823426 2823423 2026-08-20T03:20:38Z U3284040 3106549 Title edited 2823426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mental health first aid and helping behaviour<br>What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] rkgfe05nq83rud3odzaag90gy7knlvv 2823615 2823426 2026-08-20T08:54:08Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mental health]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823615 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mental health first aid and helping behaviour<br>What motivates people to recognise, approach, and support someone with a mental health problem?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mental health]] snn4sie6wwrfdqxv6632sn21nufxmlz 0 331335 2823434 2026-08-20T03:23:41Z J.M.A Watson 3106772 Created page with "This will be my book chapter" 2823434 wikitext text/x-wiki This will be my book chapter dj95wat79gnbe8k2wybw5vz6d8s1rtj 2823614 2823434 2026-08-20T08:53:49Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823614 wikitext text/x-wiki This will be my book chapter [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]] 4v11a7ud656jb60bznscfe8rxh6e960 2 331336 2823464 2026-08-20T03:39:14Z U3275775 3106980 Added about me and my book chapter section 2823464 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == [[File:Noun psychology 1325504.svg|thumb|'''''Figure 1.''''' Psychology Symbol]] Hi Everyone! I am a third year student (aged 20) at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing an undergraduate degree in a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, with a Breadth Major in Human Resource Management. <u>Get to know me:</u> * I enjoy taking walks in nature * Spending time with my dog == My Book Chapter == As part of the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion (7124)]], I am working on a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Value congruence and motivation|Value Congruence and Motivation]]. This chapter is centred around a core question; How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? Feel free to check out my chapter! == Social Contributions == syxtg00dbh1slk2rhhloyrfz7wb0m8e 2823467 2823464 2026-08-20T03:44:11Z U3275775 3106980 /* About Me */ 2823467 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == [[File:Noun psychology 1325504.svg|thumb|'''''Figure 1.''''' Psychology Symbol]] Hi Everyone! I am a third year student (aged 20) at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] completing an undergraduate degree in a Bachelor of Science in Psychology, with a Breadth Major in Human Resource Management. <u>Get to know me:</u> * I enjoy taking walks in nature * Spending time with my dog == My Book Chapter == As part of the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion (7124)]], I am working on a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Value congruence and motivation|Value Congruence and Motivation]]. This chapter is centred around a core question; How does alignment between personal and situational values influence motivation? Feel free to check out my chapter! == Social Contributions == dyl4pit947yk9xhver53ftb004wvk3l 1 331337 2823465 2026-08-20T03:40:23Z Jtneill 10242 Suggestion 2823465 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Honours project== I've had a student write a thesis about this that I could share if you get in touch. ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:40, 20 August 2026 (UTC) ilikrbd0c3rq2ou6bxazm1v5ky8ddqs 0 331338 2823468 2026-08-20T03:44:33Z TheHutt02 3106996 Added the template 2823468 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j8li5anz69acsf3t5a1r89bj88bwjol 2823613 2823468 2026-08-20T08:52:30Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Therapeutic alliance]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823613 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Therapeutic alliance]] qbkf9myo463c7smmvjdi2baaj6abirq 1 331339 2823472 2026-08-20T03:48:43Z U3143751 3106785 /* Suggestions */ new section 2823472 wikitext text/x-wiki == Suggestions == Here is a link to a source that you might find useful: https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 It is a journal article looking at emotional labour being a mediating factor between empathy and emotional exhaustion in teachers. [[User:U3143751|U3143751]] ([[User talk:U3143751|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3143751|contribs]]) 03:48, 20 August 2026 (UTC) 06m34awizlrh0ts0i077zd1q5jzhy5s 2823527 2823472 2026-08-20T05:22:16Z U3211150 3106672 /* Suggestions */ Reply 2823527 wikitext text/x-wiki == Suggestions == Here is a link to a source that you might find useful: https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1 It is a journal article looking at emotional labour being a mediating factor between empathy and emotional exhaustion in teachers. [[User:U3143751|U3143751]] ([[User talk:U3143751|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3143751|contribs]]) 03:48, 20 August 2026 (UTC) :I found this article which may be useful for your research. Its refers to stress and burnout impairment on mental health practitioners and the importance of self care and well-being in empathetic demanding careers.. :https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-019-09382-w :Good Luck! [[User:U3211150|U3211150]] ([[User talk:U3211150|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3211150|contribs]]) 05:22, 20 August 2026 (UTC) ahxv2hcfh5tuqtcudc93rj60x6jqex4 1 331340 2823476 2026-08-20T03:51:42Z TheHutt02 3106996 /* Social contribution comment */ new section 2823476 wikitext text/x-wiki == Social contribution comment == I am very interested in this topic, can't wait to see what you write! [[User:TheHutt02|TheHutt02]] ([[User talk:TheHutt02|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TheHutt02|contribs]]) 03:51, 20 August 2026 (UTC) rzwf90km8lom1q26ufeq0wx6pds9ob4 2 331341 2823495 2026-08-20T04:24:29Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 Added starter page 2823495 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi,I'm Bella Johnson. I'm a student at University of Canberra. 1joe9brlxb03v7pq29vigfal6udbv3q 2823499 2823495 2026-08-20T04:33:03Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 Added headings and dot points 2823499 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I'm a student at University of Canberra. == Hobbies == * Gym * Volleyball * Cooking == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == k9x9z5m9xv3l42n8c6bjf9o9jou35zy 2823504 2823499 2026-08-20T04:44:50Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 Add links 2823504 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I take [[motivation and emotion]] and I'm a student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] == Hobbies == * [[w:Exercise_equipment|Gym]] * Volleyball * Cooking == Book chapter I'm working on == == Social contributions == 17m82mk1nkfstq19n2ld5iwlzl75fxf 2823506 2823504 2026-08-20T04:51:42Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 Added link 2823506 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I take [[motivation and emotion]] and I'm a student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] == Hobbies == * [[w:Exercise_equipment|Gym]] * Volleyball * Cooking == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Need to love and be loved|Need to love and be loved]] == Social contributions == hxu0y3rc5a0g1yybe4tjhwn10fzk6fv 2823507 2823506 2026-08-20T04:55:17Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 /* Hobbies */ added image 2823507 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I take [[motivation and emotion]] and I'm a student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] == Hobbies == * [[File:Gym facilities.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The gym is good for your health and wellbeing]][[w:Exercise_equipment|Gym]] * Volleyball * Cooking == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Need to love and be loved|Need to love and be loved]] == Social contributions == rk1dv5dxk60b3f33aclxxxo56j06mzd 2823508 2823507 2026-08-20T04:56:29Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 /* Hobbies */ made image bigger 2823508 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I take [[motivation and emotion]] and I'm a student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] == Hobbies == * [[File:Gym facilities.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The gym is good for your health and wellbeing|360x360px]][[w:Exercise_equipment|Gym]] * Volleyball * Cooking == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Need to love and be loved|Need to love and be loved]] == Social contributions == aje74tl84w8audav1318d4b29owy80c 2823513 2823508 2026-08-20T05:03:41Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 /* Hobbies */ added point 2823513 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I take [[motivation and emotion]] and I'm a student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] == Hobbies == * [[File:Gym facilities.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The gym is good for your health and wellbeing|360x360px]][[w:Exercise_equipment|Gym]] * Volleyball * Cooking *# High protein meals *# Italian Food *# Asian Food <br /> == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Need to love and be loved|Need to love and be loved]] == Social contributions == py0btrdbpwztcgkbgoakl1d7ki1arbm 2823526 2823513 2026-08-20T05:20:11Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ + link 2823526 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I'm '''''Bella Johnson.''''' I take [[motivation and emotion]] and I'm a student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] == Hobbies == * [[File:Gym facilities.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' The gym is good for your health and wellbeing|360x360px]][[w:Exercise_equipment|Gym]] * Volleyball * Cooking *# High protein meals *# Italian Food *# Asian Food <br /> == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Overconfidence in decision-making|Overconfidence in decision-making]] == Social contributions == hb2a8tiiwjw1hkixb6pg7y0udexbpld 1 331342 2823500 2026-08-20T04:33:32Z U3143751 3106785 /* Suggested resources */ new section 2823500 wikitext text/x-wiki == Suggested resources == I found a paper looking at the cultural impacts of adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection in the context of American and Russian groups. The authors link to some foundational concepts behind adapt/maladapt self-selection including information on the concept of ''self-distancing'' - I have included the following quote which stood out to me: "...demonstrated that cuing people to analyze negative experiences from a self-distanced perspective (rather than a self-immersed perspective) led them to focus less on ''recounting'' the emotionally arousing details of their experiences and more on ''reconstruing'' them in ways that promote insight and closure." (Grossmann & Kross, 2010). Hope this helps! '''Reference''' Grossmann, I., & Kross, E. (2010). The Impact of Culture on Adaptive Versus Maladaptive Self-Reflection. ''Psychological Science'', ''21''(8), 1150-1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376655 [[User:U3143751|U3143751]] ([[User talk:U3143751|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3143751|contribs]]) 04:33, 20 August 2026 (UTC) 7zeallb15zzynp184qldsot6ed8un24 0 331343 2823531 2026-08-20T05:27:25Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 added template 2823531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j8li5anz69acsf3t5a1r89bj88bwjol 2823532 2823531 2026-08-20T05:31:03Z BellaJohnson1 3106979 added title and sub title 2823532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Overconfidence in decison-making :<br> How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] evi5tyandvcsngk4xhoie4dy49mg2bc 2823583 2823532 2026-08-20T07:25:52Z Jack4234 3106762 Typo fix 2823583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Overconfidence in decison-making:<br> How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] a2npe1dypce0f8k9396cyhpq232c16x 2823610 2823583 2026-08-20T08:47:09Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-confidence]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823610 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Overconfidence in decison-making:<br> How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-confidence]] na4kt3a4fgxpfupkkcj56s7nxnzt9es 2823611 2823610 2026-08-20T08:47:22Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823611 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Overconfidence in decison-making:<br> How does overconfidence bias affect judgement and decision-making?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-confidence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] r410wcs5hsmrtvlsgl18xyrn9kegqqk 6 331344 2823579 2026-08-20T07:22:19Z Sienna33309 3106991 2823579 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 1 331345 2823590 2026-08-20T08:14:45Z Jack4234 3106762 /* Overview */ new section 2823590 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == Looking good. I would suggest discussing some of the literature in this section. I say this because in the template it says to outline "psychological science". [[User:Jack4234|Jack4234]] ([[User talk:Jack4234|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jack4234|contribs]]) 08:14, 20 August 2026 (UTC) 54sq1hw77vqlqrygp7vvpxs93uklcxq 2 331346 2823591 2026-08-20T08:16:40Z Rachelmyhero 3102739 /* */ 2823591 wikitext text/x-wiki User: SteveOhlsson/The7WondersKid/HistoryVikingtruths: The Vikings television series was a historically accurate portrayal with some misgivings of concern. As the character John Blackwolf on Criminal Minds (Season 1/Episode 16) elegantly and wisely stated regardinf the Apache “You have been given bits and pieces of a culture you don’t understand.” The Vikings are to be remembered but not romanticized. They were fiercely loyal and had an aggrandized, almost impossible sense of responsibility and righteousness. When they said they had your back, they meant it literally, not just a saying like in modern times. It was a badge of honour. They were dangerous however. I would never advise anyone to approach the pack. They were BEASTS. They were SAVAGES. Those in the modern era with Viking ancestry or ‘blood’ typically downplay the association, are humble, and often not proud of a shared, unrefined, uncivilized and grotesquely brutish and at times borderline animalistic demeanor and consequent behaviour. They are best left in the history books. fy88h0rz4vvjx0pzmy72sjvehjdhqcp 0 331347 2823592 2026-08-20T08:17:14Z U3275908 3108582 template 2823592 wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|<nowiki>{{subst:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>]]''', sjuvx1p2blqn9m3dl22bdi5qcsmpsqd 2823595 2823592 2026-08-20T08:22:25Z U3275908 3108582 2823595 wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|<nowiki>{{subst:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>]]''' t3054y0f423djt1wolgdhxzd8r64uyi 2823596 2823595 2026-08-20T08:23:15Z U3275908 3108582 2823596 wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|<nowiki>{{subst:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>]]''' {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] amnoeh6fhjypjf3m5vh0j1f4l1amt4c 2823597 2823596 2026-08-20T08:23:27Z U3275908 3108582 2823597 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 9bhemfheord69yzyvz0yy80lc0ovi4e 2823608 2823597 2026-08-20T08:45:23Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823608 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] 122y2cc71089iah9aydpye2s0aeo6xr 2823609 2823608 2026-08-20T08:45:41Z Jtneill 10242 added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 2823609 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Title goes here:<br>Subtitle goes here?}} <div align=center>Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].<br>[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.<br>Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).</div> __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]] ; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?) Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest. Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour: # Edit source # Change "theme=3" to another number Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1). {{RoundBoxBottom}} The Overview section should provide: # '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above) # '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help # '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box Recommended length: 180 to 330 words. This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter. Key resources: * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions. * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example: {{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)<br>{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended) {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Headings== Use this heading structure: * [[#Overview|Overview]] * 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings: ** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings) ** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections * [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] * [[#See also|See also]] * [[#References|References]] * [[#External links|External links]] ==Key points== * For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion * Include key citations ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ==Learning features== Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options: {{anchor|Scenarios}} ;Scenarios * Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action * Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages) * Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s) {{anchor|Feature box}} ;Feature boxes * Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect * Consider using feature boxes for: ** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples ** Focus questions ** Tips ** Quiz questions ** Take-home messages ;Embedded links * When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to: ** Wikipedia articles (e.g., "An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]") or ** Related book chapters (e.g., "If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]") {{anchor|Tables}} ;Tables * Use tables to organise and summarise information * Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1) * Tables should be captioned * [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted '''Table 1''' A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto; |- ! !! Known to self !! Not known to self |- | '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot |- | '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long and complex quiz questions are recommended: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== * Arguably the most important section * Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking * For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research * Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem * Recommended length: 150 to 330 words {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: *** Use "Edit source" *** <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Physical exercise]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]] fkb6gzixkx14qlaazvkr51almpiyjan 1 331348 2823598 2026-08-20T08:25:30Z U3254168 3106320 /* ADHD Task Initiation */ new section 2823598 wikitext text/x-wiki == ADHD Task Initiation == Hi, please see below some links which could be interesting if you looked at the lens of why task initiation is difficult for people with ADHD: [https://www.collinspsychology.com/blog/adhd-task-initiation-strategies-a-clinical-guide-to-overcoming-task-paralysis ADHD Task Initiation Strategies: A Clinical Guide to Overcoming Task Paralysis] [https://www.theaddvocacyproject.com/blog/adhd-task-initiation-high-performing-adults Why High Performing Adults With ADHD Struggle to Start Tasks] [https://familycare.net.au/understanding-task-initiation-challenges-in-neurodivergent-men-reflections-from-the-therapy-room/ Understanding Task Initiation Challenges in Neurodivergent Men: Reflections from the Therapy Room] [https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhdhub.2025.3.1.1?journalCode=adhdhub Avoiding Procrastination: Task Initiation] [https://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2017.0146 Interruptions and Task Transitions: Understanding Their Characteristics, Processes, and Consequences] [[User:U3254168|U3254168]] ([[User talk:U3254168|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3254168|contribs]]) 08:25, 20 August 2026 (UTC) kbfi22a6adre7h3xbjybji6llf0zh12